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THE 

NEWTONIAN  SYSTEM 

OF 

EXPLAINED  BY  FAMILIAR  OBJECTS,  IN" 
AN  ENTERTAINING  MANNER, 

FOR  THE  USE  OF 

YOUNG   LADIES    &f  GENTLEMEN, 

By  TOM  TELESCOPE,  A.  M. 


Illustrated  with  Copperplates  and  Cuts. 


SECOND  PHILADELPHIA  EDITION:  WITH  NOTES  AND 
ALTERATIONS, 

By  ROBERT  PATTERSON. 

PROFESSOR  OF  MATHEMATICS,  IN  THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  PENNSYLVANIA. 


PHILADELPHIA  : 

PUBLISHED  BY  JOHNSON  ^  WARNER,  No.  147, 
MARKET  STREET. 


1808. 
Lydia  R.  Railey,  PiuNTER,  No.  10,  Mrth  Alley, 


DISTRICT  OF  PEJVKSYLVAJ^IJ,  to  wit: 


B, 


^E  it  remembered*  That  on  the  eighteenth  day  of  November,  in 
the  thirty-third  year  of  the  Independence  of  the  United  States  of 
America,  A  D,  1808,  Johmon  and  fVarnety  01  the  sai;  Dis- 
trict, have  deposited  in  (his  Office,  the  Title  oJ  a  Book,  the  Right 
whereof  they  claim  as  Proprietors  in  the  words  follov<'ing,  to  tvit  : 

The  Newtonian  System  of  Philosophy  ;  explained  by  familiar  ob- 
jects, in  an  entertainiHg  manner,  for  he  use  of  Young  Ladies  and 
Gentlemen,  by  Tom  Telescope,  A.M.  Illusttatcd  with  Copperplates 
and  Cuts.  Second  Philadelphia  Edition,  with  Notes  and  Alterations, 
by  Robert  Patterson,  Professor  of  Mathematics,  in  he  University 
of  Pennsylvania. 

In  conformity  to  the  Act  of  Congress  of  the  United  States,  enti- 
tled, "An  Act  for  the  Encouragement  i>f  Learning,  by  securing  the 
Copies  of  Maps,  Charts,  and  Books,  to  the  Authors  and  Proprietors 
of  such  Copies  during  the  Tunes  therein  mentioned."  And  also 
to  the  Act,  entitled  **  An  Act  supplementary  to  an  Act,  entitled, 
**  An  Act  for  the  Encouragement  of  Lea  ning,  by  securing  'he  Copies 
of  Maps,  Charts,  and  Books  to  the  Authors  aad  Proprietors  of  such 
Copies  during  the  I  ime  therein  mentioned,"  and  extending  the  Ben- 
ctits  thereof  to  the  Arts  of  designing,  engraving,  andetchmg  historical; 
nd other  Points." 

D.  CALDWELL,  Clerk  of  the 

District  Court  of  Fenns^hania^ 


CONTENTS. 

INTRODUCTION,  page   1. 

LECTURE  1.  Of  Matter  and  Motion. 

The  Laws  af  Motion,  page  5.  At- 
traction and  Gravitation,  8.  Figure 
of  the  Earth,  9.  Magnet  or  Load- 
stone, 11.  Cohesion,  12.  The  Sphere 
of  Attraction  and  of  Repulsion,  13. 

LECTURE  II.  Of  the  Universe,  and 
particularly  of  the  Solar  System. 

The  Horizon,  15.  The  Reflecting 
Telescope,  17.  The  Refracting  Te- 
lescope, 18.  The  Fixed  Stars,  20. 
The  Orrery,  22.  The  Sun  and  Pla- 
nets, 23.  Comets,  25.  Moon  and 
Tides,  25.  Eclipses  of  the  Sim  and 
Moon,  26.  The  Motion  of  the  Earth, 
32.  The  Armillary  Sphere,  34.  Ve- 
locity of  Light,  36. 

LECTURE  III.  Of  the  Air,  Atmos^ 
phere,  and  Meteors. 

The  Four  Elements,  39.  The  Air  and 
Atmosphere,  42.  The  Triple  Wea- 
ther-Glas,  43.  Elasticity  of  the  Air, 
45.  The  Air-Gun,  47.  Earthquakes. 
48.  Water,  49.  Light  and  Sound,  50, 
Echo,  51.  The  Air-pump,  53.  Ven- 
tilators, 57.  The  Air-Balloon,  59. 
Winds,  60.  Mists,  Fogs,  Clouds,  and 
Rain,  63.  Thunder  and  Lightning, 


2  Introduction. 

and  cheating,  that  I  abhor  it;  and  have  often 
Vr'ondered,  when  I  have  seen  people,  seem- 
mgly  of  years  of  discretion,  so  far  mistake 
themselves  and  abandon  common  sense,  as  to 
lead  a  yonng  gentleman,  just  put  into  jacket 
and  trowsers,  or  a  little  lady  in  a  frock  dress 
up  to  a  gaming  table,  to  play  and  bet  for  shil- 
lings, crov/ns,  and  perhaps  guineas,  among  a 
circle  of  sharpers.  Parents,  continued  he, 
might  almost  as  well  teach  their  children  to 
thieve  as  to  game  :  for  they  are  kindred  em- 
ployments, and  generally  terminate  in  the  ruin 
of  both  fortune  and  character.—  Lady  Twi- 
light, who  is  no  friend  to  the  modern  modes 
of  education,  smiled  atthisyoung  gentleman's 
remark,  and  desired  him  to  point  out  some 
diversion  himself.  'Tis  impossible  for  me, 
Madam,  says  he,  to  find  out  an  amusement 
suitable  to  the  taste  of  all  the  company  pre- 
sent, unless  I  was  perfectly  acquainted  w4th 
their  dispositions ;  but  were  I  to  choose,  I 
should  prefer  those  which  not  only  divert  the 
mind,  but  improve  the  understanding  :  and 
such  are  many  of  the  diversions  at  the  school 
where  I  am  placed.  We  often  play  at  sham 
Orations,  comical  Disputes,  measuring  of 
Land  and  Houses,  taking  the  Heights  and 
Distances  of  Mountains  and  Steeples  solving 


Introduction.  3 

Problems  and  Paradoxes  on  Orreries,  Globes, 
and  Maps,  and  sometimes  at  n  itural  Pliiloso- 
pby,  which  I  think  is  very  entertaining,  and 
at  the  same  time  extremely  useful  ;  for 
whether  our  knowledge  is  acquired  by  these 
amusements  and  reading  little  books,  or  by 
serious  and  elaborate  study,  what  is  obtained 
will  be  equally  serviceable;  nay,  perhaps  that 
wiiich  is  acquired  in  the  entertaining  manner 
may  have  the  advantage  ;  for,  as  it  is  con- 
veyed to  the  mind  with  a  train  of  pleasing 
ideas,  it  will  be  the  m.ore  permanent  and  last- 
ing, and  the  easier  called  up  by  the  memory 
to  our  assistance. 

Mrs.  Twilight  was  very  desirous  of  know- 
ing what  sort  of  diversion  could  be  made  of 
Natural  Philosophy  :  and  finding  her  young 
visitors  in  the  same  disposition,  she  conduct- 
ed them  to  Mr.  Setstars,  that  they  might  have 
the  use  of  proper  instruments.  As  Mr.  Set- 
star  was  engaged  incompany,  Lady  Twilight 
though  nearly  related  to  him,  would  not  dis- 
turb him,  but  led  them  through  the  saloon  in- 
to a  private  parlour,  where  our  little  Philoso- 
pher, at  the  request  of  her  Ladyship,  imme- 
diately opened  the  Lecture,  without  making 
idle  excuses,  or  waiting  for  f^irther  solicitati- 
ons ;  which  he  knew  would  be  ill  manners. 


.=^ec/Z^^^    c^t   //2a/t^9^S(^^Lytcc 


TPTT^f^. 


LECTURE  I. 

OF    MATTER     AND     MOTION. 

BY  Matter,  my  young  friends,  we  mean 
the  substance  of  all  things,  or  that  of  which 
all  bodies  are  composed,  in  whatever  form  or 
manner  they  may  present  themselves  to  our 
senses  ;  for  this  top,  that  ivory  ball,  the  hill 
before  us,  and  all  things  you  see,  are  made  of 
matter  differently  formed. 

As  to  Motion,  I  may  save  myself  and  you 
the  trouble  of  explaining  that;  for  every  boy 
or  girl  who  can  whip  his  top,  or  wave  a  fan, 
knows  what  motion  is. 

Matter,  or  Body,  is  indifferent  to  motion 
or  rest.  As  for  example,  when  I  whip  my 
top,  it  runs  round,  or  is  in  motion ;  but  when 
I  leave  off  whipping  the  top  falls  down,  and 
is  at  rest. 

When  a  body  is  in  motion,  as  much  force 
is  required  to  make  it  rest  as  was  required 
while  it  v/as  at  rest,  to  put  it  in  motion. 
Thus  :  Suppose  a  boy  strikes  a  ball  from  a 
trap,  and  another  stands  close  by  to  catch  it, 
it  will  require  as  much  strength  or  force  to 
stop  that  ball,  or  reduce  it  to  a  state  of  rest, 

A  2 


6  Of  Matter  and  Motion. 

as  the  other  exerted  to  put  it  in  motion  ;  al- 
lowing for  the  distance  the  two  boys  stand 
apart. 

No  body  or  part  of  matter  can  give  itself 
either  motion  or  rest:  and  therefore  a  body 
at  rest  will  remain  so  for  ever,  unless  it  be  put 
in  motion  by  some  external  cause  ;  and  a 
body  in  motion  will  move  for  ever,  unless 
some  external  cause  stops  it. 

This  seemed  so  absurd  to  Master  Wilson, 
that  he  burst  into  aloud  laugh.  What !  says 
'he,  shall  any  body  tell  me  that  my  hoop  or  my 
top  will  run  for  ever,  when  I  know  by  daily 
experience,  that  they  drop  of  themselves, 
without  being  touched  by  any  body  ?  At  this 
our  little  Philosopher  was  angry,  and  having 
requested  silence;  Don't  expose  your  igno- 
rance, Tom  Wilson,  for  the  sake  of  a  laugh, 
says  he;  if  you  intend  to  go  through  my 
course  of  Philosophy,  and  to  make  yourself 
acquainted  with  the  nature  of  things,  you 
must  prepare  to  hear  what  is  more  extraor- 
dinary than  this.  When  you  say  that  no- 
thing touched  the  top  or  the  hoop,  you  for- 
get the  friction  or  rubbing  against  the  ground 
it  runs  upon,  and  the  resistance  it  meets  with 
from  the  air  in  its  course,  which  is  very  con- 
siderable though  it  has  escaped  your  notice. 


Of  Matter  and  Motion.  ^ 

Somewhat  too  might  be  said  on  the  gravity 
and  attraction  between  the  top,  or  the  hoop, 
and  the  earth;  but  that  you  are  not  yet  able 
to  comprehend,  and  therefore  we  shall  pro- 
ceed in  our  Lecture. 

A  body  in  motion  will  always  move  on  in  a 
straight  line,  unless  it  be  turned  out  of  it  by 
some  external  cause.  Thus,  we  see  that  a 
marble  shot  upon  the  ice,  if  the  surface  be 
very  smooth,  will  continue  its  motion  in  a 
straight  line  till  it  is  stopt  by  the  friction  of 
the  ice  and  air,  and  the  force  of  attraction 
and  gravitation. 

The  swiftness  of  motion  is  measured  by 
distance  of  place,  and  the  length  of  time  in 
which  it  is  performed.  Thus,  if  a  cricket- 
ball  andafivesball  move  each  of  them  twenty 
yards  in  the  same  time,  their  motions  are 
equally  swift ;  but  if  the  fives-ball  moves  two 
yards  while  the  cricket-ball  is  moving  one, 
then  is  the  motion  of  the  fives-ball  twice  as 
swift  as  the  other. 

But  the  quantity  of  motion  is  measured  by 
the  swiftness  of  motion,  as  above  described, 
and  the  quantity  of  matter  moved,  consider- 
ed together.  For  instance  :  If  the  cricket- 
ball  be  equal  in  bulk  and  weight  to  the  fives- 
ball,  and  move  as  swift,  then  it  hath  an  equal 


8  Of  Matter  and  Motion. 

quantity  of  motion.  But  if  the  cricket-ball  be 
twice  as  big  and  heavy  as  the  fives-ball,  and 
yet  moves  equally  swift,  it  hath  double  the 
quantity  of  motion  ;  and  so  in  proportion. 

All  bodies  have  a  natural  tendency,  attrac- 
tion, or  gravitation  towards  each  other.  Here 
Tom  Wilson,  again  laughing,  told  the  com- 
pany that  Philosophy  was  made  up  of  nothing 
but  hard  words. — That  is  because  you  have 
not  sense  enough  to  enquire  into,  and  retain 
the  signification  of  words,  says  our  Philoso- 
pher. All  words,  continued  he,  are  difficult 
till  they  are  explained  ;  and  when  that  is  done, 
we  shall  find  that  gravity  or  gravitation  will  be 
as  easily  understood  as  praise  or  commendati- 
on ;  and  attraction  as  easily  as  correction, 
which  you  deserve,  Tom  Wilson,  for  your 
impertinence. 

Gravity,  my  young  friends,  is  that  univer- 
sal disposition  of  matter  which  inclines  or 
carries  the  lesser  part  lov/ards  the  centre  of  the 
greater  part ;  this  is  called  weight  or  gravita- 
tion in  the  lesser  body,  but  attraction  in  the 
greater,  because  it  draws,  as  it  were,  the  les- 
ser body  towards  it. — l^hus,  all  bodies  in  or 
near  the  earth's  surface  have  a  tendency,  or 
seeming  inclination,  to  descend  towards  its 
middle  part  or  centre  ;  and  but  for  this  prin- 


Of  Matter  and  Motion.  9 

ciple  in  nature,  the  earth  (considering  its 
form  and  situation  in  the  universe)  could  not 
subsist  as  it  is;  for  we  all  suppose  the  earth 
to  be  nearly  round  (nay,  we  are  sure  it  is  so, 
for  Captain  Cook,  and  many  other  naviga- 
tors, you  know,  have  sailed  round  it)  ;  and 
as  it  is  suspended  in  such  a  mighty  void  or 
space,  and  always  in  motion,  what  should 
hinder  the  stones,  water,  and  other  parts  of 
matter  falling  from  the  surface,  but  the  al- 
mighty arm  of  God,  or  this  principle  or  uni- 
versal law  in  nature,  of  attraction  and  gravi- 
tation, which  he  has  established  to  keep  the 
universe  in  order  ! — -To  illustrate  and  ex- 
plain what  I  have  said,  let  us  suppose  the  fol- 
lowing figure  to  be  the  earth  and  seas  :  let 


10  Of  Matter  and  Motion. 

Tom  Wilson  stand  at  this  point  of  the  globe 
of  earth,  where  we  are,  and  Harry  Thomson 
at  the  opposite  part  of  the  earth,  with  his  feet 
(as  they  must  be)  tow^ards  us  :  if  Tom  drop 
an  orange  out  of  his  hand,  it  will  fall  dowai 
towards  Harry  :  and  if  Harry  drop  an  orange, 
it  will  f;ill  seemingly  upAvards  (if  I  may  so 
express  myself)  towards  Tom  :  and  if  these 
oranges  had  w^eight  and  powder  sufficient  to 
displace  the  other  particles  of  matter,  of  which 
the  earth  is  composed,  so  as  to  make  way  to 
the  centre,  they  w^ould  there  unite  together, 
and  remain  fixed  ;  and  they  w^ould  then  lose 
their  power  of  gravitation,  as  being  at  the 
centre  of  gravity,  and  unable  to  fell,  and  only 
retain  in  themselves  the  power  of  attraction. 
This  occasioned  a  general  laugh ;  and  Tom 
Wilson  starting  up,  asked  how  Master 
Thompson  was  to  stand  with  his  feet  up- 
wards as  here  represented,  without  having 
any  thing  to  support  his  head  ?  Have  pati- 
ence,  says  the  little  Philosopher,  and  I  w  ill 
tell  you,  but  pray  behave  with  good  manners, 
Master  Wilson,  and  don't  laugh  at  every 
thing  you  cannot  comprehend.  This  difficul- 
ty is  solved,  and  all  the  seeming  confusion 
which  you  apprehend  of  bodies  flying  off  from 
each  other  is  removed,  by  means  of  this  at- 


Of  Matter  and  Motion,  1 1 

traction  and  gravitation.  Ask  any  of  the 
sailors  who  have  been  round  the  world,  and 
they  will  tell  you  that  the  people  on  the  part 
of  the  globe  over  against  us,  do  not  walk 
upon  their  heads,  though  the  earth  is  round  ; 
and  though  their  heels  are  opposite  ours,  they 
are  in  no  more  danger  of  falling  into  the 
mighty  space  beneath  them,  than  we  are  of 
falling  (or  rather  rising,  I  must  call  it  here) 
up  to  the  moon  or  stars. 

But  besides  this  general  law  of  attraction 
and  gravitation,  which  affects  all  bodies 
equally  and  universally,  there  are  particular 
bodies  that  attract  and  repel  each  other,  as 
may  be  seen  by  this  Magnet  or  Loadstone, 
which  has  the  property  of  attracting  or  bring- 
ing iron  to  it  with  one  end.,  and  repelling  or 
forcing  it  away  with  the  other.*  My  knife, 
says  Sam  Jones,  which  was  rubbed  on  a  load- 
stone some  years  ago,  still  retains  the  power 
of  picking  up  needles  and  small  pieces  of 
iron. 

This  however,  says  Master  Telescope,  is 
but  a  small  part  of  the  virtues  of  the  Load- 
stone ;  for  until  its  use  was  discovered,  sail- 

*  Both  ends  of  the  Magnet  will  attract  small  pieces  of 
iron  ;  though  the  North  end  of  one  Magnet  will  attract 
the  South  end  only  of  another  Magnet.-^ii(/. 


12  'Of  Matter  and  Motion. 

ors  never  ventured  with  their  ships  out  of 
sight  of  land.     You  certainly  joke,  Sir,  says 
Harry    Thompson,  for  it  is  impossible  that  a 
piece  of  iron  like  that  can  be  of  any  service 
in  navigating  those  large  ships  I  ssiw  some 
time  ago.     I  am  sorry,  replies  our  Philoso- 
pher, that  you,    like  most   ignorant  people > 
should  think  all  things   which  you  do  not 
know  the    cause  of  impossible  ;  but  I  will 
soon  prove  to  you,  that  it  is  very  simple. 
They  first  procure  a  piece  of  steel,  made 
something  like  a  needle,  but  flat,  about  four 
inches  long  :  this  they  rub  with  the  Load- 
stone, and  then  balance  it  exactly  on  a  point 
or   pivet,  so  that  it  may  turn  round  freely. 
One  of  the  ends  of  the  needle  thus  balanced, 
will  always  point  towards  the  north.     This 
needle,  when  put  in  a  box,  is  called  the  ma-' 
riner's  compass.     Thus  the  sailors  can  steer 
to  any  part  of  the  world  ;  which  they  could 
not  do  without  the  help  of  this  piece  of  iron. 
When  bodies  are  so  attracted  by  each  other 
as  to  be  united  or  brought  into  close  contact, 
they  then  adhere  or  cohere  together,  so  as  not 
to  be  easily  separated;  and  this  is  called  in 
Philosophy,  the  Power  of  Cohesion,  and  is 
undoubtedly  that  principle  which  binds  the 
particles  of  large  bodies  together;  for  all  large 


Of  Matter  and  Motion.  13 

bodies  are  made  up  of  atoms  or  particles  in- 
conceivably small.  And  this  cohesion  will 
be  always  proportioned  to  the  number  of  par- 
ticles or  quantity  of  the  surface  of  bodies 
that  come  into  contact,  or  touch  each  other; 
for  those  bodies  which  are  of  a  spherical 
form  will  not  adhere  so  strongly  as  those  that 
are  flat  or  square,  because  they  can  only  touch 
each  other  at  a  certain  point ;  and  this  is  the 
reason  why  the  particles  of  w^ater  and  quick- 
silver, which  are  globular  or  round,  are  so 
easily  seperated  with  a  touch,  while  those  of 
metals  and  some  other  bodies,  are  not  to  be 
parted  but  with  great  force.  To  give  a  fa- 
miliar instance  of  this  cohesion  of  matter,  our 
Philosopher  took  two  leaden  balls,  and  filing 
a  part  off"  each,  so  that  the  two  flat  parts 
might  come  into  close  contact,  he  gently 
pressed  them  together,  and  they  united  so 
firmly  that  it  required  some  considerable 
force  to  get  them  asunder. 

The  same  force  applied  to  two  different 
bodies  will  always  produce  the  same  quan- 
tity of  motion  in  each  of  them.  To  prove 
this,  we  put  Master  Jones  into  a  boat,  which 
(including  his  own  weight)  weighed  ten 
hundred,  on  the  Thames  by  the  Mill-bank ; 
and  on  the  Lambeth  side,  just  opposite,  we 


14  Of  Matter  and  Motion. 

placed  another  boat  of  one  hundred  weighty 
with  a  rope  tied  to  it.  This  rope  Master 
Jones  pulled  in  the  other  boat ;  and  we  ob- 
served, that  as  the  boats  approached  each 
other,  the  small  boat  moved  ten  feet  for 
every  foot  the  other  moved  :  which  proves 
what  I  ha^  e  before  observed  as  to  the  quan- 
tity of  motion. 

Attraction  is  the  stronger,  the  nearer  the 
attracting  bodies  are  to  each  other  :  and  in 
different  distances  of  the  same  bodies  it  de- 
creases as  the  squares  of  the  distances  be- 
tween the  centres  of  those  bodies  increase. 
For  if  two  bodies  at  a  given  distance  at- 
tract each  other  with  a  certain  force,  at  half 
the  distance  they  will  attract  each  other  with 
four  times  that  force. 


—15— 
LECTURE  IL 

OF    THE   UNIVERSE,    AND    PARTICULARLY 
OF    THE     SOLAR     SYSTEM. 

THE  last  Lecture  was  read  at  Mr.  Sct^ 
star's,  who  was  so  well  pleased  at  these 
young  gentlemen  meeting  thus  to  improve 
themselves,  that  he  ordered  them  to  be 
elegantly  treated  with  tarts,  sweetmeats, 
syllabubs,  a.nd  such  other  dainties  as  he 
thought  were  most  proper  for  youth  ;  his 
Lady  did  them  the  honour  of  her  company, 
and  was  particularly  pleased  with  the  con- 
versation of  Master  Telescope.  As  it  was 
a  moonlight  night,  Mrs.  Setstar,  after  sup- 
per, led  them  to  the  top  of  the  mansion, 
where  there  was  an  observatory,  furnished 
with  all  the  instrument's  necessary  for  astro- 
nomical and  philosophical  observations. 
When  the  company  were  seated,  our  Phi- 
losopher thus  began  his  second  Lecture. 

Look  round,  my  dear  friends,  said  he;  you 
see  the  earth  seems  to  be  bounded  at  an 
equal  distance  from  us  every  way,  and  ap- 
pears to  meet  the  sky  Avhich  forms  this  beau- 
tiful arch  or  concave  over  our  heads.    ''  The 


16  Of  the  Universe. 

Heavens  declare  the  glory  of  God,  and  the 
finnament  shewethhis  handy-work,"  as  the 
Psalmist  beautifully  expresses  it.  Now  that 
distant  round  where  we  lose  sight  of  the 
earth  is  called  the  horizon  ;  and  w^hen  the 
siui,  moon,  and  stars  emerge  from  beneath 
and  com.e  into  our  sight,  we  say  they  are 
risen  or  got  above  the  horizon  ;  for  all  this 
glorious  canopy  bespangled  with  lights, 
that  bedeck  the  Sky,  and  illuminate  the 
Earth,  as  the  Sun,  the  Fixed  Stars,  the 
Comets,  and  Planets  (to  which  last  our 
Earth  and  Moon  belong)  have  all  apparent 
motion,  as  may  be  perceived  by  the  naked 
eye  ;  though,  in  fact,  none  move  but  the 
planets  and  comets;  as  will  be  proved  her^- 
after. 

But  besides  the  stars  which  we  see,  there 
are  others  not  discernible  by  the  naked  eye, 
some  of  which  are  fixed  stars,  and  some  are 
bodies  moving  about  the  most  distant 
planets,  which  were  invisible  and  vmknown 
TO  us  before  the  discovery  of  Telescopes. 

Pray,  hand  me  that  Reflecting  Telescope. 

The  young  Philosopher  taking  it,  and 
placing  it  upon  the  table,  gave  the  following 
description  : 


Of  the  Universe. 


17 


This  Telescope,  from  its  construction, 
magnifies  more  than  any  other  kind.  It 
contains,  within  side,  two  metallic  specu- 
lums,  a  large  and  a  small  one.  These,  with 
two  glasses  contained  in  the  small  tube, 
marked  B,  serve  so  to  reflect  and  refract  the 
rays  of  light  issuing  from  the  object,  as  to 
shew  it  under  a  magnified  appearance.  la 
using  the  Telescope,  to  adjust  it  exactly  to 
your  sight,  you  turn  the  long  screw  C  on 
the  side,  while  your  eye  is  looking  through 
at  B,  and  the  end  A  turned  towards  the 
object,  till  you  can  see  the  object  you  want 
to  examine  in  the  most  perfect  manner. 


BO 


^^  Of  the  Universe, 

In  the  Refracting  Telescope,  which  con- 


sists of  glasses  only,  distant  objects  also  seem 
to  be  both  magnified  and  brought  nearer  to 
the  sight.  The  large  end  must  be  placed 
pointing  toward  any  distant  object  which  we 
wish  to  see  more  distinctly.  In  the  other 
end  is  a  tube  which  slides  within  the  Tele- 
scope, and  is  adjusted  to  the  proper  distance 
by  gently  drawing  it  outwards.  Now,  if  you 
look  through  the  glass  at  the  end  of  this 
tube,  to  that  part  of  the  heavens  to  which  I 
have  pointed  it,  or  indeed  any  other  part, 
you  will  perceive  more  stars  than  you  saw 
before  with  your  eye  alone.  These  are  fixed 
stars,  and  are  called  fixed,  because  they  al- 
ways keep  the  same  distance  from  each 
other,  and  the  same  distance  from  the  sun, 
which  is  also  fixed;  and  were  he  placed 
at  the  immense  distance  they  are  at,  would 
probably  appear  no  bigger  than  one  of 
them. — Hence  some  philosophers  have  con- 
cluded, and  I  think  not  without  reason,  that 
every  fixed  star  is  a  sun  that  has  a  system 
of  planets  revolving  round  it,  like  our  solar 


Of  the  Universe.  19 

system.  And  if  so,  how  immensely  great, 
how  wonderfully  glorious  is  the  structure  of 
this  universe,  which  contains  many  thousand 
worlds,  large  as  ours,  suspended  in  ether, 
rolling  like  the  earth,  round  their  several 
suns,  and  filled  with  animals,  plants,  and 
minerals,  all  perhaps  different  from  ours, 
but  all  intended  to  magnify  the  Almighty 
Architect ;  *'  who  weighed  the  mountains 
in  his  golden  scales,  who  measured  the 
ocean  in  the  hollow  of  his  hand,  who  drew 
out  the  heavens  as  a  curtain,  who  maketh 
the  clouds  his  chariot,  and  walketh  on  the 
wings  of  the  wind." 

The  fervor  and  air  of  piety  with  which  he 
delivered  this,  silenced  all  his  companions, 
and  gave  infinite  satisfaction  to  Mrs.  Setstar. 
Master  Wilson,  who  had  before  been  very 
impertinent,  began  now  to  consider  himself 
a  fool  in  comparison  to  our  Philosopher:  and 
as  Master  Telescope  had  mentioned  the 
solar  system,  he  begged  that  he  would  ex- 
plain it  to  him. 

That  I  will  with  pleasure,  replied  the  Phi- 

,  losopher :  if  you   will  be  kind  enough  to 

hand  me  that  Orrery  that  is  in  the  corner  of 

the  observatory,  and  place  it  on  the  table: 

but  first  let  me  observe  to  you,  that  of  these 


20  Of  the  Universe. 

heavenly  bodies  some  are  luminous,  and 
lend  us  their  own  light,  as  doth  the  Sun  and 
Fixed  Stars ;  while  others  are  opaque  and 
have  no  light  of  their  own  to  give  us,  but 
reflect  to  us  a  part  of  the  light  they  receive 
from  the  sun.  This  is  particularly  the  case 
with  respect  to  the  planets  and  comets  of 
our  solar  system,  which  all  give  us  a  portion 
of  the  light  they  have  received,  and  we  in 
return  reflect  to  them  a  portion  of  ours  :  for 
I  make  no  doubt  but  those  who  inhabit  the 
moon  have  as  much  of  the  sun's  light  re- 
fleeted  to  them  from  our  earth,  as  we  have 
reflected  to  us  from  the  moon. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  moon !  says  Master 
Lovelace,  with  some  emotion;  whither  will 
you  lead  me?  What!  are  the  stories  that 
have  been  told  of  the  Man  in  the  Moon, 
then,  true  ? 

I  don't  know  what  stories  you  have  heard, 
replied  the  Philosopher ;  but  it  is  no  extra- 
vagant conjecture  to  suppose  that  the  moon 
is  inhabited  as  well  as  the  earth ;  though 
what  sort  of  inhabitants  they  are,  we  on  earth 
are  unable  to  discover.  As  to  my  part,  I 
am  lost  in  this  boundless  abyss.  It  appears 
to  me  that  the  sun,  which  gives  life  to  the 
world,  is  only  a  beam  of  the  glory  of  God, 


Of  the  Universe.  21 

and  the  air  which  supports  that  life,  is,  as  it 
were,  the  breath  of  his  rrostrils. 

Do  thou,  O  God !  support  me  while  I 
gaze  with  astonishment  at  thy  wonderful 
producfions;  since  it  is  not  idle  impertinent 
curiosity  that  leads  me  to  this  enquiry,  but 
a.  fervent  desire  to  see  only  the  skirts  of  thy 
glory,  that  I  may  magnify  thy  power  and  thy 
mercy  to  mankind. 


^2^2- 


OF  THE  SOLx\R  SYSTEiM, 

NOW,  by  means  of  this  Orrery,  I  will 
illustrate  our  Solar  System;  which  contains 
the  sun  (marked  a)  in  the  centre,  and  the 
planets  and  comets  moving  about  it. 
y        db  a  c    e  g 


But  how  is  it  then,  says  Tom  Wilson, 
that  we  daily  see  the  sun  rise  and  set? 

Your  question,  replies  Master  Telescope, 
is  very  natural  /  for  it  was  an  opinion  held 
by  the  ancients  some  thousands  of  years, 
that  the  earth  was  the  centre  of  the  Universe, 
and  that  the  sun  and  planets  revolved  round 
it ;  but  I  think  this  is  easily  refuted  by  a 


Of  the  Solar  System,  23 

common  occurrence  in  a  kitchen  ;  I  mean  a 
small  bird  roasting  on  a  spit  before  a  large 
fire.  Would  not  you  think  it  very  absurd 
if  the  cook  should  endeav^our  to  make  the 
grate  with  a  large  fire  move  round  the  small 
bird  on  the  spit  ? 

Certainly  I  should,  answers  Tom  Wilson; 
for  surely  it  would  be  better  for  the  bird  to 
turn  round  before  the  fire,  than  the  fire  to 
turn  round  the  bird. 

Very  well,  then,  says  our  Philosopher,  the 
sun  being  more  than  a  million  times  larger 
than  our  earth,  we  have  certainly  reason  to 
believe  that  it  is  the  centre  of  our  system, 
and  that  the  earth  and  other  planets  move 
round  it.  But  you  will  understand  this 
better  if  you  look  at  the  plate  I  have  draw^n 
of  the  sun  and  the  planets,  in  their  several 
orbits  or  circles,  with  their  respective  dis- 
tances from  the  sun,  and  from  each  other  ; 
together  with  the  orbit  of  a  comet. 

The  planets,  as  I  have  already  observed, 
are  bodies  that  appear  like  stars,  but  are 
opaque ;  that  is,  they  have  no  light  in  them- 
selves, but  receive  it  from  the  sun,  and  re- 
flect it  upon  us.  Of  these  there  are  two 
kinds  :  the  one  called  Primary,  and  the  other 
Secondary  planets. 


24  Of  the  Solar  System. 

There  are  seven  primary  planets  5  and 
these  are  marked  on  the  Orrery  as  follows  •: 
Mercury  b^  Venus  c,  the  Earth  r/,  Mars  e^ 
Jupiter  yj  Saturn  ^5  and  the  Gcorgium  Sidus 
(which  being  of  such  recent  discovery,  is 
not  represented  in  this  Orrery.)  The  last 
of  these  was  discovered  only  a  few  years 
since  by  Dr.  Herschel,  and  called  by  him, 
out  of  respect  to  his  present  majesty  king 
George  III.  the  Georgium  Sidus,  or  Geor- 
gian. All  these  move  round  the  sun,  as  you 
see  by  my  turning  the  winch  of  the  Orrery ; 
whereas  the  secondary  planets  move  round 
other  planets. — The  Moon,  you  know 
(which  is  one  of  the  secondary  planets) 
moves  round  the  Earth;  four  moons  or  sa- 
tellites, as  they  are  frequently  called,  move 
round  Jupiter  ;  five  round  Saturn ;  and 
only  two  have  yet  been  discovered  to  move- 
round  the  Georgian  ;  though  we  have  great 
reason  to  believe  there  are  more  ;  but  fron^ 
the  immense  distance  of  that  planet,  we  have 
not  yet  perceived  them.*  Thus  has  the 
Almighty  provided  light  for  those  regions 
that  lie  at  such  an  immense  distance  from 
the  sun. 

*  Saturn  is  now  known  to  have  seven  satellites,  and 
the  Georgian  six. — Ed, 


Of  the  Solar  System.  25 

I  have  here  made  out  a  table  of  the  pe- 
riods, distances,  and  diameters  of  the  seve- 
ral planets. 


Revolves  round 

Distance  from 

Diamctei 

the  Sun  in 

the  Sun  in 

in  Eng. 

years,  days, 

Eng.  Miles. 

Miles. 

Mercury 

0        88 

36,000,000 

3261 

Venus 

0     224 

68,000,000 

7699 

Earth 

lor365 

95,000,000 

7920 

Mars 

1  &322 

145,000,000 

5312 

Jupiter 

11 — 314 

494,000,000 

90255 

Saturn 

29— ler 

906,000,000 

80012 

Georgian 

83—121 

1812,200,000 

34217 

They  all  move  round  the  sun  from  west  to 
east;  but  in  their  progress  do  not  describe  a 
perfect  circle,  but  an  orbit  a  little  mclining  to 
an  oval;  the  reason  whereof  I  shall  give  you 
in  a  future  Lecture. 

The  knowledge  we  have  of  comets  is  very 
imperfect;  it  is  a  general  supposition  that 
they  are  planetary  bodies  forming  a  part  of 
our  system,  for  they  revolve  about  the  sun 
in  extremely  long  elliptic  curves,  being  some- 
times very  near  it,  at  others  extending  far  be- 
yond the  sphere  of  the  Georgian.  Th-  period 
in  revolving  about  the  sun,  of  one  which  ap- 
peared in  1680,  is  computed  to  be  575  years. 

But  let  us  quit  these  bodies,  of  which  we 
know  so  little,  and  speak  of  our  old  compa- 
nion the  Moon,  with  whom  we  ought  to  be 


26  Of  the  Solar  System. 

better  acquainted:  since  she  not  only  lights 
us  home  in  the  night,  but  lends  her  aid  to  get 
our  ships  out  of  the  docks,  and  to  bring  in  and 
carry  out  our  merchandize;  for  without  the 
assistance  of  Lady  Luna  you  would  have  no 
tides.  But  more  of  this  hereafter. — A  little 
more  now,  if  you  please,  says  Tom  Wilson. 
What  then,  does  the  moon  pour  down  water 
to  occasion  the  tides?  I  am  at  a  loss  to  under- 
standyou.  No,  replied  our  Philosopher,  the 
moon  does  not  pour  down  water  to  occasion 
the  tides;  that  were  impossible  :  but  she,  by 
attracting  the  waters  of  the  sea,  raises  them 
higher ;  and  that  is  the  reason  w^hy  the  tides 
are  always  governed  by  the  moon. 

The  Moon's  diameter  is  2,160  miles  ;  her 
distance  from  the  earth  is  240  thousand  miles; 
she  moves  round  it  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
earth  does  round  the  sun;  she  performs  her 
synodical  motion,  as  it  is  called,  in  29  days, 
12  hours,  and  44  minutes,  though  the  peri- 
odical is  27  days,  7  hours,  and  43  minutes. 
By  this  motion  of  the  moon  are  occasioned 
the  eclipses  of  the  sun  and  moon,  and  the 
different  appearances,  aspects,  or  phases  she 
at  different  times  puts  on  :  for  when  the  earth 
is  so  situated  between  the  sun  and  the  moon 
that  we  see  all  her  enlightened  parts,  it  is  Full 


Of  the  Solar  System.  27 

Moon  ;  when  the  moon  is  so  situated  be- 
tween the  sun  and  the  earth,  that  her  enlight- 
ened parts  are  hid  or  turned  from  us,  it  is 
New  Moon  ;  and  when  her  situation  is  such 
that  only  a  portion  of  her  enlightened  part  is 
hid  from  us,  we  see  a  Horned  Moon,  a  Half 
Moon,  or  a  Gibbous  Moon,  according  to  the 
quantity  of  the  enlightened  part  we  can  per- 
ceive. 

But  I  will  endeavour  to  explain  this  to  you 
more  clearly,  says  our  Philosopher,  taking  an 
ivory  ball  suspended  by  a  string,  in  his  hand; 
we  will  suppose  this  ball  to  be  the  moon,  the 
candle  the  sun,  and  my  head  the  earth.  When 
I  place  the  ivory  ball  in  a  direct  line  between 
my  eye  and  the  candle,  it  appears  all  dark, 
because  the  enlightened  part  is  opposite  the 
candle  ;  but  if  I  move  the  ball  a  little  to  the 
right,  I  perceive  a  streak  of  light,  which  is 
like  the  New  Moon  ;  if  the  ball  be  moved 
further  it  presents  the  appearance  of  a  Half 
Moon  ;  move  it  still  further,  until  all  the  en- 
lightened part  is  seen,  it  appears  like  a  Full 
Moon. 

I  think  it  is  extraordinarj^,  says  Tom 
Wilson,  that  the  Moon  which  you  say  is  so 
much  smaller  than  the  Sun,  should  appear 
to  our  sight  equally  large. 


28  Of  the  Solar  System. 

That  is  easily  explained,  replied  our  Phi- 
losopher, for  if  you  consider  that  the  sun  is 
at  400  times  a  greater  distance  from  us  than 
the  moon,  your  objection  is  answered ;  but 
this  I  will  explain  furdier  in  treating  of 
Eclipses. 

I  have  frequently  observed,  says  Master 
Lovelace,  that  the  moon  appears  much  larger 
when  just  rising  above  the  horizon,  than  she 
does  afterw^ards  ;  I  should  like  to  know  the 
cause  of  that.  I  thank  you  for  your  observa- 
tion, Sir,  replies  our  Philosopher  ;  it  is  occa- 
sioned by  the  fogs  or  exhalations  that  arise 
from  the  earth,  which  always  magnify  ob- 
jects seen  through  them ;  thus  the  moon,  un- 
til she  rises  above  these  fogs,  always  appears 
larger.-* 

The  apparent  magnitude  of  a  celestial  body  or  the  an- 
gle it  subtends  at  the  eye,  when  near  the  horizon,  is  not 
greater  but  indeed  somewhat  less  than  when  it  is  in  the 
zenith  ;  and  that  it  should  seem  to  be  greater  is  a  mere 
optical  deception  from  its  apparent  greater  distance.  To 
this  deception  the  fogs  or  exhalations  near  the  horizon 
will  no  doubt  J  in  some  measure,  contribute. — >Ed, 


Of  the  Solar  System.  29 

The  total  or  longest  eclipse  of  the  moon 
happens  when  the  earth  is  directly  between 
the  sun  and  the  moon,  and  prevents  the 
light  of  the  sun  from  falling  upon  and  being 
reflected  by  the  moon;  as  you  will  under- 
stand by  looking  at  the  figure  I  have  here 
drawn. 


We  will  suppose  the  candle  a  to  be  the 
Sun  ;  the  cricket-ball  6,  to  be  the  Earth  ;  and 
the  fives-ball  r,  to  be  the  Moon,  A  string 
being  tied  to  each  of  the  balls,  I  tie  them  up 
to  the  ceiling,  or  any  other  support,  in  a  di- 
rect line  from  the  light  of  the  candle ;  the 
cricket-ball  about  eight  inches  from  the  can- 
dle, and  the  fives-ball  about  two  inches  from 
the  cricket.ball.  Whenever  the  earth  and 
moon  come  in  the  position  of  these  balls,  a 
total  eclipse  of  the  moon  ensues ;  because 
the  lightof  the  candle  (or  sun)  shining  on  the 

C  2 


30  Of  the  Solar  System. 

cricket-ball  (or  the  earth)  totally  obscures  or 
eclipses  the  fives-ball  (or  the  moon);  but  if 
we  move  the  fives-ball  a  little  higher  up,  or 
lower  down,  so  that  the  light  from  the  can- 
dle may  pass  by  the  cricket-ball,  it  will  of 
course  be  only  partially  eclipsed. 

An  Eclipse  of  the  Sun  is  occasioned  by 
the  moon's  being  between  the  sun  and  the 
earth,  and  preventing  the  light  of  the  sua 
from  coming  to  that  part  of  the  earth  we  in- 
habit. 

This  may  be  explained  by  changing  the 
places  of  the  balls;  for  when  the  fives-ball 
is  placed  between  the  cricket-ball  and  the 
candle,  it  will  shew  a  total  eclipse  of  the  sun; 
but  if  the  cricket-ball  is  moved  a  small  de- 
gree higher  up  or  lower  down,  so  that  the 
light  from  the  candle  shines  a  little  upon  it, 
it  will  shew  only  a  partial  eclipse. 

But  I  should  be  glad  to  be  informed,  says 
Master  Lovelace,  how  the  sun  which  is  so 
much  larger  than  the  moon,  can  be  totally 
eclipsed  from  our  sight,  by  the  moon 
coming  between  us  and  it  ? 

That  is  what  I  intended  to  explain  to  you, 
replied  Master  Telescope,  If  you  place  your 
cricket-ball  in  a  direct  line  between  your  eye 
and  the  sun,  it  will  entirely  hinder  you  from 


Of  the  Solar  System.  3i 

seeing  it,  although  your  ball  is  much  smal- 
ler than  the  sun. 

An  eclipse  of  the  sun  never  happens  but 
at  new  moon ;  nor  one  of  the  moon  but 
when  she  is  at  the  full. 


The  surface  of  the  Moon  consists  of  Moun- 
tains and  Vallies,  not  unlike  our  Earth, 
and  appears  very  beautiful  when  seen 
through  the  Telescope  I  shewed  you  some 
time  ago. 

The  livid  spots  and  bright  streaks  of 
light  are  supposed  to  be  the  mountainous 
parts  ;  and  the  same  parts  being  constantly 
turned  towards  the  earth,  she  always  pre- 
sents the  same  side  to  us.  The  dark  parts 
were  formerly  imagined  to  be  seas ;  but 
from  later    observation  it  is   proved,  that 


32  Of  the  Solar  System. 

they  are  hollow  places  or  caverns,  which 
do  not  reflect  the  light  of  the  sun. 

The  Earth,  by  its  revolution  about  the 
sun  in  365  days,  5  hours,  and  49  minutes^ 
measures  out  that  space  of  time  which  wc 


call  a  year;  and  the  line  described  by  the 
earth  in  this  annual  revolution  about  the 
sun,  is  called  the  Ecliptic.  By  an  inspec- 
tion of  this  Armillary  Sphere  you  will  have 
a  perfect  idea  of  this  and  other  circles  ne- 
cessary to  be  known. 

The  annual  motion  of  the  earth  round 
the  sun  is  from  west  to  east,  or,  to  speak 
more  philosophically,  it  is  according  to  the 
order  of  the  signs  of  the  Zodiac  ;  which 
"we  shall  hereafter  explain. 


T]ie  Solar  ^y    ^     Syl teixi 


Of  the  Solar  System.  33 

But  besides  this  annual  motion  or  revo- 
lution about  the  sun  in  the  line  of  the  Eclip- 
tic, the  earth  turns  round  upon  its  own  axis 
in  about  24  hours ;  so  that  it  hath  two  mo- 
tions at  one  and  the  same  time. 

Mrs.  Setstar,  whose  curiosity  had  kept 
her  there  during  the  Lecture,  desired  to 
have  this  explained. — That  shall  be  done, 
Madam,  in  a  minute,  says  the  little  Philo- 
sopher ;  and  I  can  never  have  a  better  op- 
portunity ;  for  I  see  Mr.  Galaxy  coming  on 
a  visit  to  your  Ladyship  :  hi^  coach  is  iu^t 
entermg  the  iron  gates,  and  will"  presently 
wheel  round  the  circle,  or  rather  oval,  be- 
fore the  Portico.  Pray,  Madam,  fix  your 
eyes  on  one  of  the  wheels  (which  you  may 
do  as  it  is  moon-light)  and  you  will  per- 
ceive it  turn  round  upon  its  ow^n  axis,  at 
the  same  time  that  it  runs  round  the  oval 
before  the  house.  This  double  motion  of 
the  wheel  very  fitly  represents  the  two  mo- 
tions   of  the  earth. 


34 


Of  the  Solar  System, 


i^i^^r 


By  mL....:3  of  this  Terrestrial  Globe  I 
shall  explain  more  interesting  astronomical 
principles. 

Your  t:iadyship  knows  perfectly  that  the 
earth,  turning  on  its  own  axis,  makes  the 
succession  of  day  and  night ;  you  will 
therefore  give  me  leave,  Madam,  to  ad- 
dress my  discourse  to  these  young  gentle- 
men and  ladies,  who  may  be  ignorant  of 
this  branch  of  philosophy. 

That  the  turning  of  the  earth  on  its  own 
axis,  makes  the  succession  of  day  and 
night  is  most  certain :  for  in  those  parts  of 
the  earth  which  are  turned  toward  the  sun 
it  will  be  day ;  and  of  course  it  must  be 
night  in  those  which  are  turned  from  it. 


Of  the  Solar  System.  35 

But  the  length  of  days  and  nights,  and 
the  variations  of  the  seasons,  are  occasion- 
ed by  the  annual  revolution  of  the  earth 
about  the  sun  in  the  Ecliptic  ;  for,  as  the 
earth  in  this  course  keeps  its  axis  equally 
inclined  every  where  to  the  plane  of  the 
ecliptic  and  parallel  to  itself,  the  earth  in 
this  direction  has  sometinaes  one  of  its  poles 
nearest  the  sun,  and  sometimes  the  other. 
Hence  heat  and  cold,  summer  and  winter, 
and  length  of  days  and  nights.  Yet  not- 
withstanding these  effects  of  the  sun, 
which  gives  us  light  and  heat,  his  distance 
from  us  is  so  great,  that  a  cannon-ball 
would  be  twenty-five  years  coming  from 
thence  to  the  earth,  even  if  it  flew  with 
the  same  velocity  as  it  does  when  it  is  first 
discharged  from  the  mouth  of  a  cannon. 

Here  they  were  all  amazed ;  and  Lady 
Caroline  said  this  doctrine  could  not  be 
true  ;  for  if  the  sun  were  at  that  immense 
distance,  his  light  could  not  reach  us  every 
morning  in  the  manner  it  does.  I  beg 
your  pardon,  Madam,  replied  the  Philoso- 
pher, your  Ladyship's  mistake  arises  from 
your  not  knowing,  or  at  least  not  consider- 
ing the  amazing  velocity  of  light,  which 
although  coming  from  the  sun,  which  is 


56  Of  the  Solar  System, 

more  than  95  millions  of  miles  distant, 
reaches  us  in  the  space  of  seven  minutes 
and  a  half,  it  must  in  consequence  travel  at 
the  rate  of  about  212,000  miles  in  one  se- 
cond of  time. 

But  if  you  are  so  surprised  at  the  sun's 
distance,  Madam,  what  think  you  of  the 
fixed  stars,  which  are  so  far  remote  from 
us,  that  a  cannon-ball,  flying  with  the  same 
velocity  as  when  first  discharged,  would 
be  700,000  years  in  coming  to  the  earth? 
Yet  many  of  these  stars  are  seen  even 
without  the  use  of  Telescopes. 

There  are  other  things  observable  in  our 
Solar  System,  which,  if  attended  to,  will 
excite  our  admiration :  such  as  the  dark 
spots  which  are  seen  on  the  Sun's  sur- 
face, and  which  often  change  their  place, 
number,  and  magnitude.  Such  also  is  the 
amazing  ring  which  encompasses  the  body 
of  the  planet  Saturn  :  and  such  are  the  belts 
that  gird  the  body  of  Jupiter  : — concerning 
all  which  there  are  various  conjectures; 
but  conjectures  in  philosophy  are  rarely  to 
be  admitted. 


(  37  ) 
LECTURE  III. 

OF   THE  AIR,  ATMOSPHERE,  AND 
METEORS. 

WHAT  was  said  by  Mrs.  Galaxy  and 
Lady  Caroline  in  favour  of  Master  Tele- 
scope, excited  Mr.  Galaxy's  curiosity  to  see 
him ;  and  the  next  morning  he  came  into 
the  Observatory  just  as  the  Lecture  began. 
The  presence  of  so  great  a  personage  put 
the  young  gentleman  into  some  confusion, 
and  several  of  them  offered  to  go  away ; 
which  Mr.  G.  observing,  prevented  by  step- 
ping into  the  next  room  ;  and  Master  Teles  ■ 
cope  took  this  opportunity  to  correct  their 
folly. 

Gentlemen,  says  he,  I  am  amazed  at  your 
meanness  and  ill  manners.  What !  because 
the  gentleman  does  you  the  honor  of  a  visit, 
will  you  run  away  from  him  ? — There  is 
nothing  betrays  a  mean  spirit  and  low  edu- 
cation so  much  as  this  ridiculous  awe  and 
dread  which  some  people  shew  in  the  compa- 
ny of  their  superiors  :  and  besides,  it  is  trou- 
blesome ;  for  the  uneasiness  one  person  is 
in,  communicates  itself  to  the  rest  of  the 
D 


38         Of  the  Air,  Atmosphere^  ^c, 

company,  and  abridges  them  of  a  portion 
of  their  pleasure.  The  easier  you  appear 
in  the  company  of  the  great,  the  more  po- 
lite  you  will  be  esteemed.  None  but  a 
clown  hangs  down  his  head,  and  hides  his 
face ;  for  a  gentleman  always  looks  in  the 
face  of  his  superior  when  he  talks  to  him, 
and  behaves  with  openness  and  freedom. 
I  venerate  Mr.  Galaxy  for  his  virtues  and 
amiable  character,  as  highly  as  any  of  you ; 
and  this  inclines  me  to  wish  for  his  compa- 
ny, rather  than  to  avoid  it.  Fortune,  and 
what  the  world  ridiculously  calls  high- 
birth,  are  merely  accidental,  and  may  often 
be  found  in  persons  of  the  most  worthless 
description ;  whilst  on  the  other  hand,  we 
sometimes  find  in  persons  of  mean  parent- 
age, (as  it  is  called)  and  without  any  of  the 
tinsel  of  fortune,  those  amiable  virtues,  and 
that  nobleness  of  soul,  which  justly  claim 
our  highest  veneration  and  esteem. 

This  r^proof^  and  these  remarks  had 
their  proper  effect ;  for  they  all  sat  down, 
and  Mr.  Galaxy  having  returned,  accompa- 
nied by  his  Lady,  our  Philosopher  began 
his  lecture  on  the  nature  and  properties  of 
the  air,  atmosphere,  and  meteors  contained 
therein. 


Of  the  Airy  AtmospherCy  feV.       39 

We  have  already  considered  the  Earth  as 
a  planet,  says  he,  and  observed  its  diurnal 
and  annual  motion  ;  we  are  now  to  speak  of 
the  materials  of  which  it  is  composed,  and 
of  the  Atmosphere,  and  the  Meteors  that 
surround  and  attend  it. 

In  order  to  explain  these  effectually,  says 
Mr.  Galaxy,  you  should,  I  think,  Sir,  begin 
with  an  account  of  the  first  principles  of  the 
four  Elements,  which  are  Fire,  Air,  Earth,  and 
Water,  and  then  shew  how  they  affect  each 
other,  and  by  their  mutual  aid  give  motion, 
life  and  spirit  to  all  things ;  for  without  fire, 
the  water  would  assume  a  different  form,  and 
become  solid  ice;  without  water,  the  fire 
would  scorch  up  the  earth,  and  destroy  both 
animals  and  plants ;  without  air,  the  fire  per- 
haps would  be  unable  to  execute  its  office  ; 
nor  without  air,  could  the  water,  though  ex- 
haled by  the  sun  into  clouds,  be  distributed 
over  the  earth  for  the  nourishment  of  plants 
and  animals.  Nor  is  the  earth  inactive,  but 
lends  her  aid  to  the  other  elements  ;  for  she, 
by  reflecting  the  sun's  beams,  occasions  that 
warmth  which  nourishes  all  things  on  her 
surface  ;  but  which  would  be  very  inconsi- 
derable and  scarcely  felt,  if  a  man  was 
placed  on  the  highest  mountain,  above  tlVe 


40  Of  the  AtTy  Atmosphere^  bV. 

common  level  of  the  earth,  and  m  such  a 
situation  as  to  be  deprived  of  her  reflection. 
All  this,  Sir,  I  have  considered,  replied 
the  Philosopher  ;  and  had  thoughts  of  car- 
rying it  farther,  and  shewing  how  those  ele- 
ments  pervade  and  are  become  indeed  con- 
stituent parts  of  the  same  body;  for  Fire, 
Air,  Earth,  and  Water,  are  to  be  drawn 
even  from  a  dry  stick  of  wood.  That  two 
sticks  rubbed  violently  together  will  prp- 
duce  fire,  is  very  well  known ;  for  coach 
or  waggon-wheels  frequently  take  fire  when 
not  properly  clouted  with  iron,  and  suppli- 
ed with  grease ;  and  if  pieces  of  wood, 
seemingly  dry,  be  put  into  a  glass  retort 
over  a  furnace,  you'll  obtain  both  air  and 
water:  and  then  if  you  burn  the  wood  to 
ashes,  and  wash  out  the  salts  with  water,  as 
the  good  women  do  when  they  make  lye,  the 
remaining  part  will  be  pure  earth  :  and  thus 
we  can  at  any  time  draw  the  four  elements 
out  of  a  stick  of  wood.  But  as  these  spe-. 
culations  are  above  the  comprehension  of 
some  of  the  young  gentlemen  whom  I  have 
the  honor  to  instruct,  I  shall  defer  the 
consideration  of  such  minute  and  abstruse 
matters  till  another  opportunity.  Science 
is   to  be  taught  as  we  teach  children  the 


Of  the  Air,  Atmosphere,  ^c.         41 

use  of  their  legs ;  they  are  at  first  shown 
how  to  stand  alone;  after  this,  they  are 
taught  to  walk  with  safety,  and  then  suf- 
fered to  run  as  fast  as  they  please  :  and  I 
beg  you  will  be  so  good  as  to  permit  me  to 
pursue  this  method  in  the  course  of  my 
Lectures.  Mr.  Galaxy  gave  his  assent 
with  a  nod ;  and  our  philosopher  thus  pro- 
ceeded : 

The  Air  is  a  light,  thin,  elastic  or  springy 
body,  which  may  be  felt,  but  not  seen :  it 
is  fluid,  and  runs  in  a  current  like  water 
(as  you  may  perceive  by  opening  the  win- 
dow ; )  but  it  cannot,  like  water,  be  con- 
gealed into  ice  ;  and  the  Atmosphere  is 
that  great  body  or  shell  of  air  which  sur- 
rounds the  earth,  and  which  reaches  many 
miles  above  its  surface,  as  is  known  by 
considering  the  elasticity  or  springiness  of 
the  air  and  its  weight  together ;  for  a  column 
of  air  is  of  equal  weight  with  a  column  of 
quicksilver  of  between  29  and  30  inches 
high.  Now  quicksilver  being  near  four 
times  heavier  than  water,  if  the  air  was  as 
heavy  as  water,  the  atmosphere  would  be 
about  fourteen  times  higher  than  the  column 
of  quicksilver,  or  about  34  feet ;  but  the  air 
is  near  1000  times  lighter  than  water ,  there- 

D   2 


42         Of  the  Ah\  Atmosphere^  U'c. 

fore,  the  atmosphere  must  be  many  miles 
high,  even  at  this  rate  of  computing.  And 
when  with  this  you  consider  the  elasticity 
of  the  Air,  which,  when  the  pressure  of 
the  incumbent  Atmosphere  is  taken  off, 
will  dilate  itself  so  as  to  fill  more  than  150 
times  the  space  it  occupied  before,  you  will 
perceive  that  the  height  of  the  Atmosphere 
must  be  very  great.  For  as  the  Air  is  a 
springy  body,  that  part  next  the  earth  must 
be  more  dense  than  the  upper  part,  as  be- 
ing pressed  down  by  the  air  above  it. 
Look  at  that  hay-stack  yonder,  which  the 
groom  is  cutting,  and  you'll  perceive  that 
the  hay  at  the  bottom  is  much  closer  and 
harder  to  cut  than  that  at  the  top,  because 
it  has  been  pressed  into  a  less  space  than  it 
otherwise  would  have  occupied,  by  the 
other  hay  above  it;  and  had  not  the  whol^ 
stack  been  trodden  and  pressed  down  by 
the  men  who  made  it,  the  difference  would 
have  been  still  more  considerable. 

The  air,  however,  even  near  the  earth,  is 
not  always  in  the  same  state.  It  is  some- 
times rarefied,  and  becomes  lighter  than  at 
other  times,  as  appears  by  the  quicksilver's 
falling  in  the  barometer,  and  the  rains  de- 
scending on  the  earth. 


Of  the  Ab\  Atmosphere^  ^c. 


43 


It  may  be  acceptable 
here,  says  the  young  Phi- 
losopher, to  explahi  the 
construction  of  that  triple 
weather-glass  that  I  see 
hanging  up  before  me. 
So  walking  up  to  it,  he 
described  it  in  the  follow- 
ing manner :  The  upper- 
most instrument  contain- 
ed in  the  round  brass  box, 
is  called  the  Hygrometer, 
(marked  a).  It  consists  of 
a  brass  plate,  divided  into 
degrees  both  ways,  right 
and  left,  from  0  to  180. 
To  the  left  is  engraved 
Moist y  and  to  the  right 
Dr^,  In  the  centre  of  the 
plate  is  fixed  the  beard  of 
a  wild  oat,  with  a  piece  of 
straw  glued  to  it,  as  an  in- 
dex. The  index  is  first  set  to  0  of  the  di- 
visions, so  that  any  change  of  the  air  which 
happens  afterwards  in  the  room  to  Moist 
or  Dri/y  the  beard  by  twisting  or  untwist- 
ing  itself  from  the  action  of  the  air,  will  by 
the  index  point  it  out  accordingly  on  tlie 
scale. 

The  open  square  part  next  below,  is  called 
the  Barometer,  (marked  6).     It  consists  of  a 


44         Of  the  Air ^  Atmosphere^  ^e. 

glass  tube  about  32  inches  long,  closed  at  the 
top,  first  filled  with  quicksilver,  and  then  in- 
verted on  a  reservior,  or  leather  bag  below, 
of  quicksilver.  By  this  means  the  quick- 
silver in  the  tube  subsides  to  its  proper 
height,  as  acted  upon  by  the  pressure  of  the 
air,  or  atmosphere  ;  for  it  is  the  dense  state, 
or  heaviness  of  the  air  that  raises  the  quick- 
silver  in  the  barometer,  and  prevents  the 
clouds  from  distilling  through  the  air  in  rain; 
and,  on  the  contrary,  its  lightness  that  ad- 
mits the  fall  in  showers,  &c. 

Barometers  are  also  used  to  determine  the 
heights  of  mountains.  Sec.  because  as  we  as- 
cend, the  quicksilver  sinks  in  proportion ;  the 
weight  of  the  atmosphere  which  presses  on  it 
being  less. 

But  what  is  the  use  of  that  screw  at  the 
bottom  of  the  instrument?  says  Master  Wil- 
son. I  thank  you  for  the  question,  says  the 
Philosopher ;  for  many  a  young  ignoramus 
has  totally  spoiled  a  good  barometer,  by  fool- 
ishly playing  with  that  screw  till  he  forced  it 
up,  broke  the  bag,  and  let  out  all  the  quick^- 
silver.  Let  it  be  particularly  known,  that 
this  screw  is  only  provided  by  the  instru- 
ment-maker,  to  force  upthe  quicksilver  in  its 
tube  in  a  gentle  manner,  so  that  in  convey- 


Of  the  Jir,  Atmosphere^  &V.         43 

ingthe  instrument  iiitothe  country  or  abroad, 
it  is  thus  made  quite  portable,  and  not 
liable  to  have  the  tube  broken  by  the  con- 
cussion of  the  quicksilver  against  the  top  of 
the  tube.  The  next  instrument  below  is 
called  the  Thermometer  (marked  c).  It  con- 
tains a  long  glass  tube,  partly  filled  with 
quicksilver,  and  screwed  down  to  a  brass 
scale,  on  which  are  marked  divisions  and 
terms  of  various  degrees  of  heat  and  cold, 
from  boiling  water  down  to  freezing,  found 
and  adjusted  by  actual  trial  of  the  maker. 
The  freezing  point  is  marked  32,  and  the 
boiling  water  212.  This  is  called  Fahren- 
heit's Scale,  as  being  the  name  of  the  inven- 
tor. I'he  heat  of  the  air  expands  the  quick- 
silver in  the  ball ;  and  it  accordingly  rises  in 
the  tube ;  whereas,  on  the  contrary,  cold 
contracts  the  quicksilver,  and  it  of  course 
falls,  so  that  at  any  time  by  mere  inspection, 
the  change  of  the  temperature  of  the  air  is 
immediately  shewn. 

The  elastic  principle  in  the  air,  which 
renders  it  so  capable  of  being  rarefied  and 
condensed,  has  been  productive  of  the  most 
wonderful  effects.  But  before  you  proceed 
farther,  says  Lady  Caroline,  pray  do  me  the 
favour.  Sir,  to  convince  me,  by  some  expe- 


46         Of  the  Atr^  Atmosphere^  ^e* 

riment,  that  the  air  is  endowed  With  this 
wonderful  quality., — That  he  cannot  do,  re- 
plied Mr.  Setstar,  without  the  use  of  proper 
instruments. — Almost  any  thing  will  do, 
says  the  Philosopher. — Little  Master's  pop- 
gun that  lies  in  the  window,  is  sufficient  for 
my  purpose.  Do  me  the  honor  to  step  this 
way,  Lady  Caroline.  You  see  here  is  a  pel- 
let in  the  top  of  this  tube,  made  of  hemp  or 
brown  paper.  With  this  piece  of  paper  I 
will  make  another  pellet,  and  put  it  into  the 
other  end.  Now  with  the  gun-stick  drive  it 
forward.  There  you  have  forced  the  pellet 
some  p^rt  of  the  way  with  ease ;  but  it  will 
be  more  difficult  to  get  it  farther,  because 
the  air,  being  compressed  &nd  made  more 
dense  or  compact,  will  make  more  resist- 
ance ;  and  when  you  have  pressed  it  so  close 
that  its  force  overpowers  the  resistance 
which  the  pellet  makes  at  the  other  end, 
that  pellet  will  fly  off  with  a  bounce,  and  be 
thrown  by  the  spring  of  the  air  to  a  consi- 
derable distance.  There,  see  with  what  force 
it  is  thrown  ! 

This  you  have  taken  little  notice  of,  be- 
cause it  is  a  school-boy's  action,  and  is  seen 
everyday;  for  indeed  we  seldom  trouble  our- 
selves  to  reason  about  things  that  are  so  fa- 


Of  the  Jir,  Atmosphere,  feV.         47 

miliar;  yet  on  this  principle,  my  Lady,  de- 
pends the  force  of  a  cannon  ;  for  it  is  not  the 
gun-powder  and  fire  that  drives  out  the  ball 
with  such  prodigious  velocity  ;  no,  that  force 
is  occasioned  by  the  fire's  suddenly  rarefy- 
ing the  air  which  was  contained  in  the  cham- 
ber or  breach  of  the  cannon,  and  that  gene- 
rated  by  the  powder  itself.  As  a  proof  of  this, 
place  the  same  ball  in  the  same  quantity  of 
powder  in  an  open  vessel,  and 
when  fired  you  will  scarce 
see  it  move.  But  there 
have  been  guns  lately  in- 
vented, called  Air-guns, 
which  abundantly  prove 
what  I  have  advanced  ;  for 
they  are  charged  only  with 
concentrated  or  condensed 
air. 

Here  is  one,  I  perceive, 
hanging  over  my  head, 
where  you  are  to  observe 
that  the  ball,  which  is  pre- 
viously filled  by  a  syringe 
with  the  condensed  air,  is 
screwed  under  the  back, 
and  by  pulling  the  trigger, 
a  valve  is  pushed  in  the  ball 
by  a  pin  ;  the  air  rushes 
from  thence,  through  the 
back,  into  the  barrel,  against 


48         Of  the  Atr^  Atmosphere^  ^c 

the  bullet,  and  drives  it  to  a  great  distance ; 
and  the  air  in  the  ball  is  sufficient  to  dis- 
charge six  or  seven  balls,  one  after  the 
other  ;  each  of  which  would  kill  a  buck  or  a 
doe  at  a  very  considerable  distance. 

You  seem  all  amazed,  and  I  don't  wonder 
at  it,  since  you  have  never  yet  considered  the 
extraordinary  properties  of  this  element;  and 
it  must  seem  strange  to  you  that  the  air, 
which  is  so  necessary  for  life,  that  without  it 
we  cannot  breathe,  should  be  tortured  into 
an  instrument   of  destruction.     You  will, 
however,  be  more  surprised  when  I  tell  you 
that  this   is  probably  the   cause  of  earth- 
quakes ;   and  that  the  noble  city  of  Lisbon 
was  some  years  ago  destroyed  by  a  sudden 
rarefaction  of  the  air  contained  in  some  of  the 
caverns  of  the  earth,  and  perhaps  under  the 
sea. Tom  Wilson  gave  a  leer  of  imper- 
tinence, but  was  ashamed  to  shew  his  folly 
before  such  good  company.     All  the  rest 
stared  at  each  other  without  speaking  a  word, 
except  Lady  Caroline,  who  protested  she 
could  not  believe  what  he  had  said   about 
earthquakes ;  for,  says  she,  I  remember  to 
have  read  in  the  news  papers,  that  the  flames 
burst  out  of  the  ground.      That  might  be, 
my  Lady,  says  the  little  Philosopher  ;   for 


Of  the  Aii\  Atmosphere^  ^c.         49 

there  could  be  no  such  sudden  rarefaction 
of  the  air  without  fire.  Fire  therefore  did 
contribute  towards  the  earthquake,  and  fire 
might  burn  down  a  mountain  composed  of 
combustibles  ;  but  fire  could  never  blow  one 
up.  No,  my  Lady,  that  effect  is  the  sole 
property  of  the  air.  This  dispute  would,  in 
all  probability,  have  taken  up  much  time  ; 
but  Mr.  Setstar  put  an  end  to  the  contro- 
versy, by  declaring  it  was  true  Philosophy. 

In  this  property  of  being  rarefied  and  con- 
densed, the  air  differs  amazingly  from  water, 
which,  though  composed  of  such  small  par- 
ticles as  not  to  be  distinguished  or  seen  se- 
parately w^ithamicroscope,  and  notwithstand^ 
ing  its  readiness  to  rise  or  be  evaporated 
wath  heat,  and  to  be  separated  with  a  touch, 
cannot,  when  confined,  be  at  all  concentrated 
or  brought  into  a  less  compass. 

I  have  already  intimated  that  heat  is  the 
efficient  cause  of  all  fluidity,  and  that  ice 
may  therefore  be  termed  the  natural  state  of 
water;  the  utility  of  which  to  man,  as  well 
in  diluting  his  food  as  in  increasing  his  en- 
joyments in  various  modes,  it  would  be  te- 
dious and  useless  minutely  to  describe  to 
you ;  containing  a  quantity  of  air,  it  is  the 
medium  by  which  aquatic  animals  respire. 


So  Of  the  Air  J  AtiJiosphere^  ^c. 

It  is  also,  if  not  the  principal,  at  least  a  con- 
siderable part  of  the  food  of  Vegetables  ; 
which  I  will  afterv^ards  explain  to  you. 

By  increasing  the  heat,  water  is  rendered 
elastic  and  volatile  ;  that  is,  it  is  converted 
into  vapour,  the  force  of  which,  when  con- 
fined is  almost  incredible;  this  force  has 
been  applied  to  the  use  of  Mechanics  in  the 
Steam  Engines,  by  which,  it  is  said,  that  a 
single  drop  of  water,  converted  into  vapour, 
is  capable  of  raising  several  hundred  weight* 
The  construction  of  these  engines  is  so  very 
complicated,  that  it  is  impossible  for  me  to 
explain  them  without  a  model. 

Air  is  the  medium  which  diffuses  light  to 
the  world;  for  if  there  was  no  atmosphere 
to  refract  the  sun's  rays  round  the  globe,  it 
Avould  be  almost  as  dark  in  the  day-time  as 
in  the  night ;  and  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars, 
would  only  be  visible.  It  is  also  the  medi- 
xmi  of  sounds,  which  are  conveyed  by  the 
tremulous  motion  of  the  air,  when  agitated 
by  any  noise.  Let  me  throw  this  peach- 
stone  into  the  moat,  and  you  will  perceive 
circles  of  small  waves  diffuse  themselves  by 
degrees  to  a  great  distance  round  it.  Now, 
as  the  air  is  fluid  as  well  as  the  water,  we  may 
conclude  that  sound  is  conveyed  somewhat 


Of  the  Ai)%  Atmosphere^  ^e.  5 1 

in  this  manner  ;  though  as  that  is  nearly  a 
thousand  times  lighter  than  water,  sounds 
are  propagated  at  an  amazing  rate :  some 
say,  after  the  rate  of  1142  feet  in  a  second 
of  time  ;  but  however  that  be,  we  may  rest 
assured  that  sound  is  conveyed  in  this  man- 
ner :— Only  throw  up  the  sash  and  halloo, 
and  the  echo  will  return  you  the  sound  ;  that 
is,  the  v/aves  or  pulses  of  air,  which  are  put 
in  motion  by  the  noise  you  make,  will  strike 
against  the  rocks,  and  return  to  you  again  : 
for  the  echo  is  nothing  but  the  reverberation 
of  sound.  And  that  there  can  be  no  sound 
conveyed  without  air,  is  proved  by  experi- 
ment ;  for  a  bell,  struck  in  an  exhausted 
receiver  of  an  air-pump,  cannot  be  heard; 
that  is,  it  has  little  or  no  sound. 

Without  air  there  w^ould  be  no  merchan. 
dize  ;  for  your  ships  could  not  sail  to  foreign 
climates  ;  and  without  air  the  birds  could 
not  fly,  since  they  would  have  nothing  to  sup^ 
port  them,  and  their  wings  would  be  useless; 
for  we  know  that  a  feather  falls  with  as  much 
velocity  as  a  guinea  in  an  exhausted  receiver 
of  an  air  pump.  But  above  all,  air  is  the 
principle  which  preserves  life  both  in  plants 
and  animals  ;  there  is  no  breathing  without 
air:    and  you  know,  when   our  breath  is 


^^2 


Of  the  Air  J  Atmosphere^  ^c. 


slopt,  we  die.  This  is  one  of  those  truths 
that  are  called  self-evident ;  because'  it  is 
universall-y  known,  and  needs  no  confirma- 
tion ;  but  if  demonstration  be  thought  ne- 
cessary, you  may  have  it  in  a  minute,  by  put- 
ting some  living  animal  into  an  air-pump. — 
But,  said  Lady  Caroline,  it  is  cruel  to  tor- 
ture a  poor  animal ;  and  violently  opposed 
this  experiment  being  tried  ;  but  as  the  rest 
v/ere  for  it,  Mr.  Setstar  was  willing  to  gratify 
their  curiosity,  and  therefore  told  our  Phi- 
losopher that  he  might  try  the  experiment 
with  a  rat,  which  they  had  caught  in  a  trap ; 
and  if  he  survived  it,  give  him  his  life  for 
the  pain  they  had  put  him  to.  Master  Tele-^ 
scope,  after  placing  the  air-pump  on  the 
lable  proceeded  as  follows  : 


Of  the  Ah\  Atmosphere,  fcV.  '60 


By  the  help  of  this  machine,  all  that  I 
have  spoken  concerning  the  weight  and  elas- 
ticity of  the  air,  is  demonstrated  in  the  most 
simple  and  elegant  manner.  For  by  work- 
ing the  handle  (marked  A)  all  the  air  that  is 
contained  within  the  glass  receiver  (marked 
B)  is  pumped  out;  and  if  any  living  animal  is 
put  within  the  receiver,  all  the  air  in  its  body 
is  pumped  out  likewise:  then,  as  I  mentioned 
before,  air  being  the  principle  which  pre- 
serves life,  the  animal  dies,  unless  fresh  air 
be  immediately  admitted^  which  may  be 
done  by  turning  a  screw  (at  C).  Our  Phi- 
losopher then  put  the  rat  into  the  receiver ; 
E  2 


54  Of  the  Ah\  Atmosphere^  ^c. 

and  when  the  air  was  nearly  exhausted,  it 
appeared  in  great  agony,  and  convulsed ; 
and  more  air  being  pumped  out,  it  fell  on 
its  side  for  dead ;  but  fresh  air  being  imme- 
diately admitted,  it  rushed  into  its  lungs, 
which  put  them  in  motion  again,  and  he  re- 
covered. The  maimer  of  the  animal's  re- 
covery puts  me  in  mind,  eays  the  Philoso- 
pher of  an  accident  which  I  once  seen,  and 
which  I  would  have  you  all  remember  ;  for 
it  may  be  of  service  to  mankind. 

Some  time  ago  I  was  bathing  with  se- 
veral of  my  school-fellows  in  a  river  by  the 
road-side.  Master  Curtis,  who  was  an  ob- 
stinate silly  boy,  would  dastard  the  rest,  as 
he  called  it ;  that  is,  he  would  foolishly  ex- 
ceed them  in  running  into  dangers  and  dif- 
ficulties ;  and  with  this  view,  though  he 
could  swim  no  more  than  a  stone,  he  plunged 
into  a  part  of  the  river,  which  we  told  him 
was  greatly  beyond  his  depth,  where  he 
rose  and  struggled  to  get  out,  but  could 
not.  We  were  all  in  the  utmost  distress^ 
and  unable  to  assist  him„  for  none  of  us 
could  swim.  At  this  instant  some  gentle- 
men on  horseback  came  up,  who  immedi- 
ately dismounted,  and  got  him  out;  but 
not  till  he  had  sunk  the  third  time. — He 


Of  the  Ah\  Atmosphere^  ^c,         55 

was  brought  to  the  shore  without  signs  of 
life,  and  blooded  w  ithout  any  effect ;  when 
one  of  the  gentlemen,  who,  I  have  since 
heard,  was  a  great  philosopher,  advised 
them  to  blow  some  air  down  his  throat : 
this  was  done,  and  the  elasticity  of  the  air 
put  his  lungs  in  motion,  as  I  imagine,  for 
a  pulsation  immediately  ensued ;  he  reco- 
vered almost  as  soon  as  this  animal.  Now, 
from  what  I  heard  that  gentleman  say,  and 
from  the  instance  before  us,  there  is  reason 
to  believe  that  the  lives  of  many  might  be 
saved,  who  are  supposed  drowned,  if  this 
method  was  put  in  practice  of  conveying 
air  to  the  lungs  ;  for  you  are  to  consider^ 
that  unless  the  lungs  are  in  motion,  there 
can  be  no  circulation ;  and  it  was  for  want 
of  air  that  their  motion  ceased  in  the 
water.  Pray,  gentlemen,  let  this  be  remem- 
bered, for  it  is  a  matter  of  great  impor- 
tance. 

We  are  to  observe,  gentlemen,  that  air 
which  has  passed  through  fire,  or  is  become 
foul  or  stagnated,  and  has  lost  its  spring,*' 
is  unfit  for  respiration.     It  was  the  want  of 

*  Air  is  not  rendered  noxious,  or  unfit  for  respiration, 
by  any  loss  of  sfirvig^  or  elasticity,  but  by  that  of  its 
vital  principle,  which  the  modem  chemists  tcrni  cxy-- 
§cn  gas — Ed, 


56         Of  the  Jir,  Atmosphere^  ^c. 

fresh  air,  or,  in  other  words,  the  being 
obliged  to  breath  air  that  was  foul,  and  had 
lost  its  spring,  or  elastic  force,  that  some 
years  ago  killed  so  many  poor  Englishmen 
in  the  black  hole  at  Calcutta,  in  the  East- 
Indies  :  and  this  breathing  of  foul  air  in  in- 
flammatory, putrid,  and  eruptive  disorders  ; 
such,  for  instance,  as  the  small-pox  and 
some  fevers,  has  destroyed  more  than  can 
be  imagined.  If  therefore  you  should  be 
seized  with  any  of  these  disorders,  advise 
the  people  about  you  to  make  use  of  their 
common  sense,  and  not,  because  a  man  is 
ill,  deprive  him  of  that  vital  principle,  the 
air,  without  which  he  could  not  live,  even 
in  a  state  of  health.  Never  suffer  your 
curtains  to  be  drawn  close,  or  exclude  the 
fresh  air,  even  when  you  sleep. 

I  am  greatly  mistaken,  says  Lady  Caro- 
line, if  the  air  we  are  now  in  has  not  lost 
its  spring;  for  I  breathe  with  difficulty. 
Was  that  the  case,  Madam,  replied  the 
little  Philosopher,  you  would  not  be  able 
to  breathe  at  all ;  but  if  your  Ladyship  finds 
the  air  so  disposed,  you  should  make  use 
of  the  instrument  that  lies  by  you  ;  which, 
by  putting  the  air  in  motion,  will  in  part, 
recover  its  spring.     What  instrument,  Sir  ? 


Of  the  Ai)\  Atmosphere^  ^c.         57 

says  the  Lady.  Your  fan,  Madam,  return- 
ed the  Philosopher,  Every  fan  is  a  philo- 
sophical instrument,  and  was  originally 
contrived,  wc  may  suppose,  for  the  purpose 
above-mentioned. 

A  bird  dying  in  an  air-pump  will  be  in 
some  measure  recovered  by  the  convulsive 
flutterings  of  its  own  wings ;  because  that 
motion  alters  the  state  of  the  air  remaining 
in  the  receiver,  and  for  a  time  renders  it 
fit  for  respiration. 

Motion  is  the  only  preservative  for  air 
and  water  ;  both  of  which  become  unwhole- 
some if  kept  long  in  a  state  of  rest ;  and 
both  may  be  recovered,  and  made  salutary 
by  being  again  put  in  motion. 

If  foul  and  stagnated  air  has  such  dire 
effects,  how  much  are  we  obliged  to  the 
learned  and  ingenious  Dr.  Hales  for  disco- 
vering the  Ventilator  :  an  instrument  which, 
in  a  little  time,  discharges  the  foul  air  from 
ships,  prisons,  and  other  close  places,  and 
supplies  them  with  that  which  is  fresh  ! 

The  researches  of  our  modern  Philoso- 
phers, says  eur  Lecturer,  have  been  the 
means  of  many  new  discoveries  in  regard 
to  air.  They  now  produce  and  prove  the 
existence  of  many  different  sorts  of  air ; 


58  Of  the  Air^  Atmosphere^  Wc. 

such  as  our  common  air,  inflammable  air, 
nitrous  air,  mephitic  air,  more  technically 
denominated  by  them  gases,  or  elastic  flu- 
ids. But  it  would  be  difficult  to  give  you 
clear  ideas  upon  this  subject,  unless  you 
had  some  previous  knowledge  of  Chemis- 
try. I  must  therefore  beg  leave  to  dispense 
with  the  account  of  these  now,  and  only  to 
advise  my  hearers  to  a  study  of  Chemistry, 
as  now  improved,  as  a  science  that  will 
afibrd  them  much  pleasure,  and  informa- 
tion in  Nature's  wonderful  operations. 

When  you  mentioned  inflammable  air, 
says  master  Wilson,  I  thought  you  would 
ha\^e  mentioned  the  Balloon  ;  which,  of  all 
the  wonders,  I  think  the  greatest.  I  pro- 
test it  perplexes  me  to  account  how  in  na- 
ture it  is  possible  for  any  large  hollow  sub- 
stance, even  although  filled  with  air,  to 
float  in  fhe  almosphere,  particularly  when 
weighed  down  with  a  boat  and  two  men  in 
it,  as  represented  in  this  picture  hung  near 
me  ;  which  records  the  memorable  event  of 
Mr.  Blanchard  and  Dr.  Jefferies  crossing 
the  English  channel  from  Dover  to  France. 


Of  the  Ah\  Atmosphere^  ^c.         59 


I  am  surprised  at  so  simple  a  question, 
says  our  Philosopher.  Why,  surely,  you 
never  considered  the  reason  of  those  balls 
that  I  have  seen  you  make  by  soap  and  wa- 
ter beat  to  a  lather,  and  blown  out  of  the 
bowl  of  a  tobacco-pipe.  The  air,  by  which 
they  are  blown,  issuing  from  your  lungs, 
is  specifically  lighter  than  the  common  air ; 
even  when  contained  in  that  thin  watery 
globe.  Now,  inflammable  air  is  about  ten 
times  lighter  than  common  air,  so  that  a 
large  hollow  silk  balloon,  filled  with  inflam- 
mable  air,  although  loaded  with  a  boat,  two 
men,  and  sundries,  is  lighter  in  its  bulk 
than  common  air ;  and  consequently,  when 


60         Of  the  Air^  Atmospliere^  &V. 

released  from  the  cords  that  fasten  it  to  the 
ground,  it  rises  majestically,  and  soars  along, 
in  and  above  the  clouds,  according  to  the 
direction  of  the  wind. 

We  are  now  to  speak  of  the  Wind, 
which  is  only  a  stream  or  current  of  air, 
as  a  river  is  of  water,  and  is  occasioned  by 
heat,  eruptions  of  vapours,  condensations, 
^rarefactions,  the  pressure  of  clouds,  the  fall 
of  rains,  or  some  other  accident  that  dis- 
turbs the  equilibrium  of  the  air  :  for  Nature 
abhors  a  vacuum,  and  for  that  reason,  when 
the  air  is  extremely  rarefied  in  one  part, 
that  which  is  more  dense  will  immediately 
rush  in  to  supply  the  vacant  places,  and 
preserve  the  equilibrium ;  as  is  the  case 
with  water  and  other  fluid  substances. 
Only  raise  a  vessel  of  water  suddenly  out 
of  a  cistern,  and  see  with  what  speed  the 
other  water  will  rush  in,  to  fill  up  the  space, 
and  preserve  its  level.  And  these  rarefac- 
tions in  the  air  may  happen  near  the  earth, 
or  much  abore  it ;  and  is  the  reason  why 
clouds  fly  in  contrary  directions.  This  oc- 
casioned the  loss  of  the  great  kite,  which 
we  were  a  whole  fortnight  in  making ;  for 
though  there  was  scarcely  wind  in  the 
park  sufficient  to  raise  it,  yet  when  lifted 


Of  the  Air ^  Atmosphere^  fcfr.  61 

extremely  high  by  the  air,  it  was  seized  by 
a  current  of  wind  and  torn  in  pieces. 

Winds  are  violent  or  gentle,  in  proportion 
to  the  rarefaction  or  disturbance  there  has 
been  in  the  atmosphere.  A  violent  wind, 
in  a  great  storm,  flies  at  the  rate  of  50  or 
60  miles  in  an  hour,  and  is  often  so  dense, 
or  strong,  as  to  bear  down  trees,  houses, 
and  even  churches  before  it.  What  the 
sailors  call  a  brisk  wind,  flies  at  the  rate  of 
about  15  miles  an  hour,  and  is  of  great  use 
in  cooling  the  air,  and  cleansing  it  from  poi- 
sonous and  pestilential  exhalations. 

The  winds  have  various  qualities ;  they 
are  generally  either  hot  or  cold,  according 
to  the  quarter  from  whence  they  blow.  In 
England,  some  years  ago,  they  had  a  south- 
west wind  in  February,  which  blew  so  long 
from  that  quarter,  that  it  brought  them  the 
very  air  of  Lisbon ;  and  it  was  as  hot  as 
in  Summer.  Winds  from  the  north  and 
north-east,  which  come  off'  large  tracts  of 
land,  are  generally  cold.  Some  winds 
moisten  and  dissolve,  others  dry  and  thick- 
en :  some  raise  rain,  and  others  disperse  it : 
some  winds  blow  constantly  from  one  quar- 
ter, and  are  therefore  called  the  General 
Trade   winds  \  these  are  met  with  on  each 


e2         Of  the  Air,  Atmosphere,  ^c. 

side  of  the  Equator,  in  the  Atlantic,  Ethi- 
opic,  and  Pacific  Oceans.  Some  winds, 
again,  blow  constantly  one  way  for  one 
half,  or  one  quarier  of  the  year,  and  then 
blow  the  contrary  w^ay.  These  are  met 
with  in  the  East- Indian  seas,  and  are  cal- 
led Monsoons,  or  Periodical  Trade  Winds. 
But  as  these  subjects  are  abstruse  and  dif- 
ficult, and  afford  little  entertainment,  I  will 
defer  an  explanation  of  them  at  present,  and 
endeavour  to  give  you  some  account  of  the 
meteors  that  attend  the  ain 

We  have  already  observed,  that,  besides 
pure  air,  the  atmosphere  contains  minute 
particles  of  different  sorts,  which  are  contin- 
ually arising  in  streams  from  the  earth  and 
waters,  and  are  suspended  and  kept  floating 
in  the  air. 

The  most  considerable  of  these  are  the 
small  particles  of  water;  which  are  so  sepa- 
rated as  to  be  lighter  than  air,  and  are  raised 
by  the  sun's  heat,  or  lifted  up  by  the  wind 
from  the  sea,  rivers,  lakes,  and  marshy  or 
moist  parts  of  the  earth ;  and  which  descend 
again  in  Dews,  Rain,  Hail,  and  Snov/. 

When  these  small  particles  are,  by  a  rare- 
fied state  of  the  air,  suffered  to  unite  many 
of  them  together,  and  descend  so  as  to  ren- 


Of  the  Air^  Atmosphere^  ^c.       63 

der  the  hemisphere  more  opaque,  and  bf  its 
humidity  to  moisten  bodies  on  the  earth,  it  is 
called  a  Mist.  And,  on  the  contrary,  those 
particles  of  water  that  arise  after  a  hot  day 
from  rivers,  lakes,  and  marshy  places,  and, 
by  filling  the  air,  moisten  objects  and  render 
them  less  visible,  are  called  Fogs. 

Clouds  are  the  greatest  and  most  beneficial, 
of  all  the  meteors,  for  they  are  borne  about 
on  the  wings  of  the  wind,  and,  as  the  Psalm- 
ist observes,  ''  Distribute  fatness  to  the 
earth."  Clouds  contain  very  small  particles 
of  water,  which  are  raised  a  considerable 
distance  above  the  surface  of  the  earth ;  for  a 
cloud  is  nothing  but  a  mist  flying  high  in  the 
air,  as  a  mist  is  nothing  but  a  cloud  here  be- 
low. 

That  these  vapours  are  raised  in  the  air, 
in  the  manner  above-mentioned,  may  be 
readily  conceived;  for  it  is  an  action  that  is 
seen  every  day  in  common  distillations  ;  but 
how  these  invisible  particles  which  float  in 
the  air,  are  collected  into  clouds,  in  order 
to  bring  the  water  back  again,  is  not  so  easy 
to  determine.  It  is  probable,  that  by  uniting 
first  into  small  drops,  then  into  larger,  they 
become  too  heavy  to  be  suspended  by  the 
air,  and  fall  down  in  rain. 


,G4         Of  the  Air^  Atmosphere^  £srV. 

We  come  now  to  describe  the  causes  of 
Thunder  and  Lightning;  but  here  I  must 
take  the  Electrical  Machine  to  my  aid. 

On  account  of  the  many  late  improve- 
ments that  have  been  made  in  the  science  of 
electricity,  the  instrument-makers  have  made 
electrical  machines  upon  various  construc- 
tions. The  one  I  am  now  going  to  describe 
is  not  the  most  modern  of  these;  but  as  the 
essential  parts  are  exactly  the  same  in  all, 
you  will  obtain  by  this  a  sufficiently  com- 
plete and  just  information  of  the  curious 
properties  belonging  to  them. 

All  the  phenomena  called  Electrical,  are 
supposed  to  be  effected  by  an  invisible  sub- 
tile fluid  existing  in  all  the  bodies  of  the 
earth.  The  Electrical  Machine  is  made  to 
extract  this  fluid  from  the  earth,  in  the  man- 
per  I  will  describe  to  you. 


Of  the  Ah\  Atmosphere y  ^e.         65- 


The  handle  (marked  A)  behig  turned 
round,  by  means  of  some  wheelwork  in  the 
box  (marked  B)  it  turns  round  the  glass  ey- 
Imder  (marked  C);  this  cylinder  rubs  against 
the  cushion  of  stuffed  silk,  which  is  called 
the  Rubber  (marked  D):  by  this  means  the 
electric  fluid  is  extracted  from  the  rubber, 
and  carried  round  by  the  glass  to  the  points 
(marked  E)  which  it  enters,  and  remains  in 
the  tin  tube  or  conductor  (marked  F),  which 
F  2 


66         Of  the  Air^  Atmosphere,  E^V. 

is  fixed  upon  a  glass  stem  (marked  G):  as 
the  electric  fluid  camiot  pervade  glass,  this 
stem  hinders  it  from  returning  again  to  the 
earth.  When  the  machine  is  worked,  if  a 
person  places  one  of  his  knuckles  about  half 
an  inch  from  the  brass  knob  at  the  end  of  the 
conductor  (marked  H)  the  electric  fluid  will 
dart  like  a  bright  spark  of  fire  from  it  to  the 
knuckle,  and  give  the  person  a  small  degree 
of  pain.  If  instead  of  the  knuckle,  a  coated 
jar  is  placed  to  the  conductor,  the  fire  will  be 
received  by  it,  and  accumulated  therein  :  so 
that  if  a  person  touch  the  bottom  of  the  jar 
with  one  hand,  and  the  ball  at  the  top  of  it 
with  the  other,  he  will  receive  the  charge  of 
electricity  through  him,  and  feel  the  sensa- 
tion of  a  sudden  shock. 

The  similarity  of  lightning  and  electricity 
is  not  to  be  remarked  in  a  few  appearances 
only,  but  is  observable  throughout  all  their 
various  effects.  Lightning  destroys  edifices 
animals,  trees,  &:c.  It  always  goes  through 
the  best  conductors,  such  as  metal  or  water; 
but  if  it  meet  with  substances  which  will  not 
conduct  it  (such  as  stone  or  wood)  it  rends 
them,  and  disperses  them  in  every  direction. 
Lightning  burns,  and  often  melts  metals  and 
other  substances.  All  these  effects,  as  I  said 


Of  the  Air,  Atmosphere,  fcf<7.         67 

before,  may  be  produced  by  electricity. 
But  beside  the  great  similarity  existing  be- 
tween lightning  and  electricity,  what  fully 
jproves  them  the  same  is,  that  the  matter  of 
lightningmay  be  actually  brought  down  from 
the  clouds  by  means  of  electrical  kites  :  but 
as  this  is  a  very  dangerous  experiment  in 
unskilful  hands,  I  will  not  now  describe  the 
method  of  making  it.  Clouds  have  almost 
always  some  electrical  matter  in  them  ;  and 
the  lightning  accompanying,  which  is  sup- 
posed to  be  collected  from  the  earth  with  the 
thunder,  is  only  that  matter  darting  from  one 
or  more  clouds  into  another  cloud,  or  else 
upon  the  earth  ;  *  in  which  case  it  strikes 
upon  the  most  lofty  and  pointed  places,  and 
by  this  stroke  produces  all  those  dreadful 
effects  that  are  known  to  be  occasioned  by 
lightning.  But,  says  Miss  Caroline,  you 
have  not  yet  mentioned  those  pointed  rods 
on  the  tops  of  many  large  buildings  ;  I  have 
been  told  they  protect  the  buildings  from 
lightning.  That  they  certainly  do,  Madam, 
said  Master  Telescope,  for  the  lightnino-  ig 

*  The  lightning,  in  a  thunder-stornn,  perhaps  as  fre- 
quently paises  from  the  earth  to  the  cloud,  as  in  the  con- 
trary direction, yet  in  both  cases,  the  pointed  lightning-rod, 
is  equally  advantageous Ed^ 


68  Of  the  Air ^  Atmosphere^  is'e. 

attracted  from  the  clouds  by  the  pointed  rod, 
and  is  by  it  conducted  down  the  side  of  the 
building  to  the  nearest  water  without  dama- 
ging it.  These  rods  were  the  invention  of^ 
the  late  ingenious  Dr.  Franklin  of  Philadel- 
phia. People  in  general,  when  they  happen 
to  be  caught  in  a  thunder-storm,  run  for  shel- 
ter under  a  tree ;  but  that  is  very  wrong  ;  for 
the  lightning  is  attracted  by  the  tree,  and 
thus  accidents  often  happen.  The  best  way 
is  to  get  into  an  open  place  and  lay  at  a  dis- 
tance all  metal  which  you  may  have  about 
you  :  if  you  do  this,  you  are  not  in  much 
danger  of  being  hurt  by  the  thunder  and 
lightning. 

Snow  is  the  small  particles  of  water  fro- 
zen in  the  air  before  they  had  united  into 
drops  ;  and  hail  is  drops  of  rain  frozen  in 
its  fall. 

The  Aurora  Borealis^  or  northern  lights, 
are  occasioned  by  certain  nitrous  and  sul- 
phureous vapours,  which  are  thinly  spread 
through  the  atmosphere,  above  the  clouds^ 
where  they  ferment,  and,  taking  fire,  the  ex- 
plosion of  one  portion  kindles  the  next, 
and  the  flashes  succeed  one  another,  till 
all  the  vapour  is  set  on  fire,  the  streams 
wliereof   seem  to    converge   towards    the 


Of  the  Atr^  Atmosphere y  ^e.         69 

zenith  of  the  spectator,  or  that  point  of  the 
heavens  which  is  immediately  over  his 
head.^ 

\,  At  this  instant,  up  started  Master  Long, 
and  said,  I  should  be  glad  to  have  an  account 
of  this  Jack-with-a-Lantcrn,  which  so  haunts 
Mr.  Setstar's  park,  and  t'other  day  led  my 
friend  Tom  Wilson  into  a  large  pond.  Mas- 
ter Wilson,  you  are  to  understand,  had  been 
at  his  uncle's,  where  he  had  staid  rather  too 
late,  and  therefore  his  uncle  ordered  the  foot- 
man to  light  him  home  ;  but;  Tom,  being  a 
very  courageous  fellow,  and  a  little  obstinate, 
would  walk  home  alone  and  in  the  dark :  and 
just  as  he  came  into  the  marshy  meadow,  who 
should  he  almost  overtake  but  this  same 
gentleman,  this  Jack-with-a-  Lantern,  whom 
he  mistook  for  Goody  Curtis,  the  washer- 
woman, and  thought  she  was  lighting  herself 
home  from  work.  Tom  ran  to  overtake 
Dame  Curtis  ;  but  Mr.  Jack  with  his  Lan- 
tern still  kept  ovit  of  reach,  and  led  my  friend 
Tom  out  of  the  path  ;  which  he  did  not  per- 
ceive till  he  had  lost  himself:  on  which  Tom 
halloo'd,  and   Jack  would  not  answer.     At 

*  The  Aurora  Borealis  is,  most  probably,  an  electrical 
phenomenon,  though  the  manner  in  which  it  is  produced  is 
still  uncertain. — IlcL 


Id         Of  the  Air  J  Atmosphere,  &?<?. 

last  souse  came  Tom  into  Duckweed  pond, 
where  he  might  have  lain  till  this  time,  if 
Mr.  Goodall  had  not  heard  him  call  out  as 
he  was  riding  by,  and  went  to  his  assistance,^ 
This  put  all  the  company  in  good  humour- 
and  Tom  had  good  nature  and  good  sense 
enough  to  join  them  in  the  laugh;  which 
being  subsided,  our  Philosopher  thus  pro- 
ceeded in  his  Lecture  : 

The  Ignis  Fatuus,  Jack'tvith-a-Lantern^ 
or  IViU'With'the- Wispy  as  it  is  frequently 
called,  is  supposed  to  be  only  a  fat  unctu- 
ous, and  sulphureous  vapour,  which  in  the 
night  appears  lucid  ;  and  being  driven  about 
by  the  air  near  the  earth's  surface,  is  often 
mistaken  for  a  light  in  a  lantern.  Vapours 
of  this  kind  are  in  the  night  frequently 
kindled  in  the  air,  and  some  of  them  appear 
like  falling  stars ;  and  are  by  ignorant  peo- 
ple so  called. 

It  may  be  here  necessary  to  mention  that 
beautiful  phenomenon  the  Rainbow,  since  it 
has  the  appearance  of  a  meteor,  though,  in 
reality,  it  is  none  ;  for  the  Rainbow  is  occa- 
sioned by  the  refraction  and  reflection  of  the 
sun's  beams  from  the  very  small  drops  of  a 
cloud  or  mist  seen  in  a  certain  angle  made 
by  two  lines,  the  one  drawn  from  the  sun. 


Of  the  Air,  Atmosphere,  ^c.         71 

and  the  other  from  the  eye  of  the  spectator, 
to  those  small  drops  in  the  clouds  which  re- 
fleet  the  sun's  beams  :  so  that  two  persons 
looking  on  a  Rainbow  at  the  same  time,  do 
not,  in  reality  see  the  same  Rainbow. 

There  are  other  appearances  in  the  atmos- 
phere which  ought  to  be  taken  notice  of; 
and  these  are  the  halos,  or  circles,  which 
sometimes  seem  to  encompass  the  sun  and 
moon;  and  are  often  of  different  colours. 
These  always  appear  in  a  rainy  or  frosty 
season,  and  are  therefore,  we  may  suppose, 
occasioned  by  the  refraction  of  light  in  the 
frozen  particles  in  the  air. 

Here  the  Lecture  would  have  ended,  but 
a  sudden  clap  of  thunder  brought  on  fresh 
matter  for  meditation.  Some  of  the  com- 
pany, and  particularly  the  ladies,  endea- 
voured to  avoid  the  lightning  ;  but  Master 
Telescope,  after  the  second  elap,  threw  up 
the  sash,  and  assured  the  ladies  and  gentle- 
men there  was  no  danger,  for  that  the  clouds 
were  very  high  in  th,e  air.  The  danger  in  a 
thunderstorm,  says  he,  is  in  proportion  to  the 
violence  of  the  tempest,  and  the  distance  of 
the  clouds  ;  but  this  tempest  is  not  violent ; 
and  that  the  cloud  is  at  a  great  distance,  or 
high  in  the  air,  you  may  know  by  the  length 


72         Of  the  Ah\  Atmosphere^  ^c, 

of  time  there  is  between  your  seeing  the 
flash  of  lightning  and  hearing  the  clap  of 
thunder.  Look,  see  how  the  sky  opens  to 
emit  the  fire !  presently  you  will  hear  the 
thunder,  for  you  know  we  see  the  fire  from 
a  gun  at  a  distance,  long  before  we  hear  the 
report.  There  it  is !  and  how  tremenduous  ! 
These  tempests  always  put  me  in  mind  of 
that  beautiful  passage  in  Shakespeare's  King 
Lear  ;  where,  when  the  good  old  King  is  out 
in  a  storm,  and  obliged  to  fly  from  his  unna- 
tural  children,  he  says. 


-Let  the  great  Gods 


That  keep  this  dreadful  thund'ring  o'er  our  heads, 
Fmd  out  their  enemies  now.     Tremble,  thou  wretch, 
That  hast  within  thee  undivulged  crimes 
Uhwhipt  of  justice  !  hide  thee,  thou  bloody  hand, 
Thou  perjur'd,  and  thou  simular  of  virtue. 
That  art  incestuous  I  Caitiff,  shake  to  pieces, 
That  under  covert,  and  convenient  seeming, 
Has  practis'd  on  man's  life  I  Close  pent-up  Guilt, 
Rive  your  concealing  continents,  and  ask 
These  dreadful  summoners  grace  ! 
This  tempest  will  not  give  me  leave  to  ponder 
On  things  would  hurt  me  more- 
Poor  naked  wretches,  wheresoe*r  you  are, 
That  bide  the  pelting  of  this  pityless  storm ! 
How  shall  your  houseless  heads,  and  unfed  sides, 


Of  the  Air^  Atmosphere^  &V. 

Your  loop'd  and  widow'd  raggedness  defend  you 
From  seasons  such  as  these  ?  — O,  I  have  ta'en 
Too  little  care  of  this  !  Take  physic,  Pomp, 
Expose  thyself,  to  feel  what  wretches  feel, 
And  thou  may'st  shake  the  superflux  to  them, 
And  shew  the  Heavens  more  just. 


G 


r4-. 


LECTURE  IV. 


OF    MOUNTAINS,     SPRINGS,     RIVERS, 
AND     THE     SEA. 

WE  come  now,  says  the  Philosopher,  to 
the  consideration  of  things  with  which  we 
are  more  intimately  acquainted,  but  which 
are  not,  on  that  account,  the  less  wonderful. 
How  was  that  Mountain  lifted  up  to  the  sky  ? 
How  came  this  crystal  Spring  to  bubble  on 
its  lofty  brow,  or  that  large  River  to  flow 
from  its  massy  side  ?  But  above  all,  how 
came  this  mighty  body  of  water,  the  Sea,  so 
collected  together  ?  and  why,  and  how  was 
it  impregnated  with  salt,  seeing  the  fish  and 
other  animals  taken  out  of  it  are  perfectly 
fresh?  These  are  questions  not  to  be  answer- 
ed, even  by  the  Sages  in  Science.  Here  the 
Philosopher,  at  the  end  of  his  judgment,  and 
lost  in  admiration,  can  only  say  with  the 
Psalmist,  "  They  that  go  down  into  the  sea, 
'^  and  occupy  their  business  in  the  great 
'*  waters,  these  men  see  the  greatness  of 
''  God,  and  his  wonders  in  the  deep. — 
''Wonderful   are  thy  works,  O  Lord;  in 


Of  Mountains,   Springs^  ^c.  75 

**  judgment  has  thou  made  them  all! — The 
**  earth  is  full  of  thy  greatness  !" 

It  is  the  business  of  Philosophy,  how- 
ever, to  enquire  mto  these  things,  though 
our  enquiries  are  sometimes  vain.  We 
shall  therefore,  in  this  Lecture,  give  the 
best  account  we  can  of  Mountains,  Springs, 
Rivers,  and  the  Sea. 

The  ancients  supposed  that  Mountains 
were  originally  occasioned  by  the  Deluge  ; 
before  which  time  they  imagined  the  earth 
was  a  perfect  level :  and  a  certain  Abbot 
was  taken  into  custody  and  punished  for 
asserting  that  the  earth  was  round  ;  though 
there  is  so  great  a  necessity  for  its  being  so, 
that,  according  to  the  properties  with  which 
the  Almighty  has  endowed  the  substances 
that  compose  the  world,  it  could  not  conve- 
niently subsist  in  any  other  form  ;  for,  not 
to  mention  the  formation  of  rivers,  which 
are  generally  occasioned  by  the  mists  that 
fall  on  the  mountains ;  if  the  earth  was  a 
regular  plain,  instead  of  that  beautiful  va- 
riety of  hills  and  valleys,  of  verdant  forests 
and  refreshing  streams,  which  at  present 
delight  our  senses,  a  dismal  sea  would  cover 
the  whole  face  of  the  globe  ;  and  at  best 
it  w^ould  be  onlv  the  habitation  of  fishes. 


76  Of  Mountains y  Springs^  h^c. 

I  protest,  says  Lady  Caroline,  I  think  you 
carry  this  argument  too  far,  and  seem  to 
question  the  power  of  the  Creator. — How  can 
you  tell  that  the  earth  and  water  thus  dis- 
posed  would  have  that  effect  ? — From  daily 
experience.  Madam,  says  the  Philosopher. 
Throw  this  stone  into  the  moat,  and  you 
will  see  it  sink ;  or  this  clod  of  dirt,  and  it 
will  fall  to  the  bottom.  But,  says  she,  this 
is  not  always  the  case ;  for  when  I  water 
my  flowers,  the  water  sinks  into  the  ground 
and  disappears. — That  is,  because  there  is 
abundantly  more  earth  than  water.  Madam, 
says  he ;  and  the  earth  being  porous,  or 
hollow,  the  water  runs  mto  the  cavities, 
and  fills  them ;  but  was  you  to  continue 
pouring  out  of  the  water-pot  till  all  these 
crevices  were  full,  you  would  find  the  water 
flow  at  top,  and  the  garden- mould,  or  earth, 
would  remain  at  the  bottom ;  for  if  you 
take  a  pint  pot  of  earth,  and  another  of  wa- 
ter, and  mix  them  ever  so  well  together, 
the  earth  will  in  a  little  time  subside  or  fall 
to  the  bottom,  and  the  water  will  be  seen  at 
the  top.  This  is  to  me  a  demonstration, 
Madam ;  and  it  is  so  far  from  calling  in 
question  the  wisdom  of  God,  that  it  is  vin- 
dicating his  wisdom  in  the  works  of  Crea- 


Of  Mountains^   Springs,  b\'. 


i  i 


tion.  So  that  you  may  perceive  from  hence, 
as  well  as  from  the  motion  of  the  Heavenly 
bodies,  that  the  earth  is  round,  and  that  the 
ancients  were  in  an  error. 

And  with  regard  to  Mountains,  though 
the  Deluge  might  throw  up  many,  and  much 
alter  the  face  of  the  earth,  yet  from  the 
great  use  mountains  are  of  in  collecting  the 
waters  of  the  atmosphere  into  springs  and 
rivers,  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  there 
were  mountains  even  in  the  first  age  of  the 
world. 

If  I  am  not  mistaken,  says  Mrs.  Twi- 
light, it  has  been  supposed,  and  by  men  of 
learning,  that  this  irregularity  of  the  earth's 
surface  was  occasioned  by  some  comet's 
striking  against  it :  and  this  opinion,  I 
know,  put  Miss  Lucy  and  many  others  in 
great  pain  when  the  late  Comet  was  ex- 
pected. What  say  you  to  this,  young  Gen- 
tleman ? 

I  am  unable  to  answer  for  all  the  extra- 
vagant conceits  and  ridiculous  follies  of  the 
human  race.  Madam,  says  he ;  and  you 
might  as  well  expect  me  to  give  a  rea- 
son for  the  poor  soldier's  prophesying  an 
earthquake  some  time  ago,  and  of  the  ter- 
rors of  the  people  on  that  occasion,  as  to 
2  G 


73  Of  Mountains,   Springs,  &V. 

account  for  this.  That  the  Earth  has  un- 
dergone amazing  changes  since  its  first  for- 
mation, is,  I  think,  evident  from  the  con- 
tents of  many  mountains,  in  various  parts 
of  the  world.  In  some  are  found  petrifac- 
tions in  abundance  ;  in  others,  the  shells  of 
sea-fish,  the  bones  of  animals,  &c.  At 
Reading,  in  Berkshire,  (England,)  which 
is  above  forty  miles  from  the  sea,  there  is  a 
stratum  of  oyster  shells,  which  appear  like 
real  oysters,  and  arc  spread  through  a  hill 
of  considerable  extent ;  they  lie  upon  a 
chalky  rock  in  a  bed  of  sand,  much  resemb- 
ling that  of  the  sea ;  and  the  upper  part  of 
the  hill,  which  is  a  loamy  soil,  is  thirty  or 
forty  feet  perpendicular  above  them  :  and  at 
Burton,  near  Petworth,  in  Sussex,  was  dug 
out  of  a  pit,  the  bones  or  skeleton  of  an 
Elephant ;  and  lately,  in  the  state  of  New- 
York,  the  bones  of  an  enormous  quadraped 
have  been  discovered  underneath  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth.*  Numberless  curiosities 
of  this  kind  have  been  discovered,  (some 
of  which  I  shall  take  particular  notice  of  in 
my   next  course  of  Lectures) ;  yet  I  think 

*  A  complete  skeleton  of  this  animal  is  now  to  be 
seen  at  Peak**  Museum,  in  Philadelphia. — IlcI, 


Of  Mountains^   Sp rings ^  fcV.  10 

there  are  few  but  what  may  be  accounted 
for  from  the  effects  of  the  dekige,  earth- 
quakes, and  subterraneous  fires.  Earth- 
quakes at  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  for  instance, 
have  sometimes  thrown  up  mountains  or 
little  islands,  with  the  fish  upon  them,  which 
have  been  covered  by  the  sandy  or  loose 
earth  giving  way,  and  falling  over  them. 
It  is  not  long  since  an  island  was  raised  in 
this  manner,  in  the  Archipelago,  of  ten 
miles  circumference,  the  hills  of  which 
abound  with  oysters  not  yet  petrified,  and 
which  are  much  larger  than  those  taken  on 
the  coast ;  whence  we  may  conclude,  that 
they  were  thrown  up  from  the  deepest  part 
of  the  sea.  Sea-fish  have  been  also  found 
in  other  mountains ;  some  of  which  have 
been  petrified,  while  others  have  been  found 
with  the  flesh  only  browned  or  mummied. 

And  from  the  amazing  quantity  of  fire 
contained  in  the  earth,  and  of  the  subter- 
ranean air  rarefied  thereby,  great  alterations 
must  have  been  made  in  its  surface  in  the 
course  of  so  many  years. 

Very  well,  says  Lady  Caroline ;  and  so 
you  are  going  to  turn  the  earth  into  a  hot- 
bed, and  I  suppose,  we  who  are  its  inhabi- 
tants, are   by-and-by  to  be   complimented 


80  Of  Mountains^  Springs^  ^c. 

with  the  title  of  mushroons  and  cucumbers, 
or  perhaps  pumpkiRS.    .  This  is  fine  philo- 
sophy,  indeed.     Have  patience,  my   dear, 
says   Mrs.  Setstar. — Patience,  Ma'am,  re- 
turned  Lady  Caroline,  why  I  hope  your  La- 
dyship would  not  have  me  believe  that  we 
have  a  furnace  of  fire  under  us  ? — -I  do  not 
know.  Madam,  whether  it  be  immediately 
under  us  or  not,  replied  the   little  Philoso- 
pher ;  but  that  there  are  numbers  of  these 
furnaces  in  the  earth  is  beyond  dispute,  and 
is  evidently  proved  by  the  great  number  of 
burning  mountains,  which  are  continually 
sending  up  flames,  attended  with  large  stones 
and   metallic  substances.     I  am  sorry  Mr* 
Galaxy  is  gone,  Madam  ;  for  he  would  have 
set  you  right  in  this  particular,  which,  par- 
don me,  I  shall  not  attempt,  since  I  find  my 
veracity  so  much  questioned.  The  company 
all  laughed  at  the  Philosopher  in  a  pet ;  but 
Mrs.  Setstar  took  up  the  matter,  and  soon 
put  an   end  to  the  dispute.     She   blamed 
Lady   Caroline  for  offering  to  decide  upon 
a  point  which  she  did  not  understand ;  and 
then  turning  to  the  young  gentleman,  told 
him,  that  patience  ought  to  be  a  principle 
ingredient  in  the  character  of  a  philosopher. 
Upon  which  Lady  Caroline  and  he  compo- 


Of  Mountains y  Springs,  ^c.  81 

sed  their  difference  with  a  mutual  smile, 
and  after  asking  the  pardon  of  Mrs.  Set- 
star  for  betraying  too  much  warmth,  even 
in  the  cause  of  truth,  he  told  Lady  Caro- 
line, she  should  have  some  account  of  these 
mountains  from  the  best  authority ;  when, 
taking  a  book  out  of  his  pocket,  he  read  as 
follows  : 

"  The  most  famous  of  these  mountains 
is  Etna  in  Sicily,  w^hose  eruptions  of  flame 
and  smoke  are  discovered  at  a  great  dis- 
tance, by  those  that  sail  on  the  Mediterra- 
nean, even  as  far  as  the  harbour  of  Malta, 
v/hich  is  forty  German  miles  from  the  shore 
of  Sicily.  Though  fire  and  smoke  are  con- 
tinually vomitted  up  by  it,  yet  at  some  par- 
ticular  times  it  rages  with  greater  violence. 
In  the  year  of  1536  it  shook  all  Sicily,  from 
the  first  to  the  twelfth  of- May ;  after  that, 
there  was  heard  a  most  horrible  bellowing 
and  cracking,  as  if  great  guns  had  been 
fired  ;  there  were  a  great  many  houses  over- 
thrown throughout  the  whole  island.  When 
this  storm  had  continued  about  11  days, 
the  ground  opened  in  several  places,  and 
dreadful  gapings  appeared  here  and  there, 
from  which  issued  forth  fire  and  flame  with 
great  violence,  which  in  four  days  consumed 


82         Of  Mountains y  Springs,  ^c. 

and  burnt  up  every  thing  that  was  within 
five  leagues  of  Etna.  A  little  after,  the 
funnel,  which  is  on  the  top  of  the  mountain, 
disgorged  a  greatquantity  of  hot  embers  and 
ashes  for  three  whole  days  together,  which 
were  not  only  dispersed  throughout  the 
whole  island,  but  also  carried  beyond  sea 
to  Italy  ;  and  several  ships  that  were  sailing 
to  Venice,  at  two  hundred  leagues  distance, 
suffered  damage.  Facillus  hath  given  us 
an  historical  account  of  the  eruptions  of 
this  mountain ;  and  says  that  the  bottom  of 
it  is  one  hundred  leagues  in  circuit. 

''  Hecla,  a  mountain  in  Iceland,  rages 
sometimes  with  as  great  violence  as  Etna, 
and  casts  out  great  stones.  The  imprisoned 
fire  often,  by  want  of  vent,  causes  horrible 
sounds,  like  lamentations  and  howlings ; 
which  make  some  credulous  people  think  it 
the  place  of  Hell ;  where  the  souls  of  the 
wicked  are  tormented. 

'^  Vesuvius  in  Campania,  not  far  from 
the  town  of  Naples,  though  it  be  planted 
with  most  fruitful  vines,  and  at  other  times 
yieldeth  the  best  Muscadel  wines,  yet  it  is 
very  often  annoyed  with  violent  eruptions. 
Dion  Cassius  relates,  that  in  the  reign  of 
Vespasian,  there  v/as  such  a  dreadful  erup- 


K^f/^^n/j     /^ 


J. 


Of  Mountains y  Springs^  ^c.  83 

tion  of  impetuous  flames,  that  great  quanti- 
ties of  ashes  and  sulphureous  smoke  were 
not  only  carried  to  Rome  by  the  wind,  but 
also  beyond  the  Mediterranean,  into  Africa, 
and  even  into  Egypt.  Moreover,  birds 
were  suffocated  in  the  air,  and  fell  down 
dead  upon  the  ground  :  and  fishes  perished 
in  the  neighboring  waters,  which  were  made 
hot  and  infected  by  it.  There  happened 
another  eruption  in  Martial's  time,  which 
he  elegantly  describes  in  one  of  his  epigrams, 
and  laments  the  sad  change  of  the  mountain, 
which  he  saw  first  in  its  verdure,  and  im- 
mediately after  black  with  ashes  and  embers. 
When  the  burning  ceased,  the  rain  and  dew 
watered  the  surface  of  the  mountain,  and 
made  these  sulphureous  ashes  and  embers 
fruitful,  so  that  they  produced  a  large  in- 
crease of  excellent  wine ;  but  when  the 
mountain  began  to  burn  again,  and  to  dis- 
gorge fire  and  smoke  afresh  (which  some- 
times happened  within  a  few  years)  then 
were  the  neighbouring  fields  burnt  up,  and 
the  highways  made  dangerous  to  travellers. 
^*  A  mountain  in  Java,  not  far  from  the 
town  of  Panacura,  in  the  year  1586,  was 
shattered  to  pieces  by  a  violent  eruption  of 
glowing  sulphur  (though  it  had  never  burnt 


84         Of  Mountains  J   Springs^  ^e, 

before) ;  whereby  (as  it  was  reported)  ten 
thousand  people  perished  in  the  under-land 
fields.  It  threw  up  large  stones,  and  cast 
them  as  far  as  Panacura  ;  and  continued  for 
three  days  to  throw  out  so  much  black 
smoke,  mixed  with  flames  and  hot  embers, 
that  it  darkened  the  face  of  the  sun,  and 
made  the  day  appear  as  night." 

There  is  a  great  number  of  other  moun- 
tains, or  (as  your  Ladyship  is  pleased  to  call 
them)  furnaces  in  the  known  world;  to 
enumerate  them  would  be  too  tedious  to 
my  auditors. 

We  come  now  to  the  consideration  of 
Springs  ;  which  are  occasioned  principally, 
we  may  suppose,  by  the  water  exhaled  from 
the  sea,  rivers,  lakes,  and  marshy  places ; 
which,  forming  clouds,  are  dispersed  by  the 
winds.  These  clouds,  when  they  are  so 
collected  together  as  to  become  too  heavy 
to  be  supported  by  the  air,  fall  down  in  rain 
to  water  the  herbs  and  plants ;  but  those 
that  are  lighter,  being  driven  aloft  in  the  air, 
dash  against  the  mountains,  and  to  them 
give  up  their  contents  in  small  particles; 
whence  entering  the  crevices,  they  descend 
till  they  meet  together,  and  form  springs : 
and  this  is  the  reason  why  M^e  have   such 


Of  Mountains^  SpringSy  ^c.         SS 

plenty  of  springs  in  mountainous  countries, 
and  few  or  none  in  those  that  are  flat.  And 
you  may  observe  that  it  frequently  rains  in 
hilly  countries,  when  it  is  clear  and  fine 
in  the  valleys  beneath ;  for  the  air  in  the 
vallies  is  dense  enough  to  support  the  clouds, 
and  keeps  them  suspended ;  but  being  driven 
up  among  mountains,  where,  in  conse- 
quence of  their  height,  the  air  is  so  much 
lighter,  they  descend  in  mists  or  such  small 
drops  of  rain  that  will  not  run  off",  as  is 
the  case  in  a  heavy  rain,  but  sink  into  the 
crevices  of  the  earth,  in  the  manner  alrea- 
dy mentioned.  Now,  that  a  great  part  of 
this  water  is  exhaled  from  the  sea,  may  be 
known  by  the  extraordinary  rains  and  great 
dews  which  fall  upon  islands  that  are  sur- 
rounded by  the  sea ;  but  some  springs,  it 
is  reasonable  to  suppose,  have  their  source 
from  the  ocean,  since  those  which  we  meet 
with  near  the  sea  are  generally  somewhat 
salt  or  brackish. 

These  springs,  thus  formed  by  the  mists 
on  mountains,  and  the  rain  meeting  toge- 
ther, form  little  rivulets  or  brooks ;  and 
these  again  uniting,  frequently  compose 
large  rivers,  which  empty  themselves  into 

the  sea :  and  in  this  manner  the  water,  ex- 
H 


86  Of  Mountains^   Springs^  &fc. 

haled  from  the  sea  by  the  sun,  is  returned 
to  it  again ;  for  Providence  has  established 
such  wise  laws  or  regulations  for  the  world, 
that  no  part  of  the  element  can  be  annihila- 
ted.  But  the  very  large  rivers  must  have 
some  other  source  besides  the  springs  form- 
ed  by  the  mists,  dews,  and  rains,  since  these 
seem  insufficient  to  support  their  prodigious 
discharge ;  it  is  therefore  no  improbable 
conjecture,  to  suppose  that  they  have  some 
communication  with  the  sea,  and  that  the 
salt  water  is  purified  and  rendered  sweet  by 
passing  through  the  sand,  gravel,  and  cre- 
vices of  the  earth. 

Lakes  are  collections  of  water  contained 
in  the  cavities  of  the  surface  of  the  earth ; 
some  of  which  are  said  to  be  stagnant,  and 
made  up  of  the  waste  water  that  flows,  after 
rain  or  snow,  from  the  adjacent  countries  ; 
and  these  must  be  unwholesome.—  Other 
lakes  are  supplied  by  rivers,  the  contents  of 
which  they  receive  and  convey  under 
ground,  to  form  other  springs  and  rivers ; 
others,  again,  are  fed  by  springs  which  arise 
in  the  lake  itself;  and  some  (as  that  of 
Haerlem  and  other  salt  lakes)  have  a  com- 
munication, it  is  supposed,  with  the  sea, 
whence  they  receive  their  waters,  and  af- 


Of  Mountains^   Springs j  ^c.         8/ 

terwards  discharge  them  by  subterranean 
streams. 

The  sea  is  a  great  collection  of  water  in 
the  deep  vallies  of  the  earth ;  I  say,  in  the 
deep  vallies ;  for  if  there  were  not  prodigi- 
ous cavities  in  the  earth,  to  contain  this 
amazing  quantity  of  water,  thus  collected 
together,  the  whole  surface  of  the  globe 
would  be  overflowed  ;  for  the  water  being 
lighter  than  the  earth,  would  be  above  the 
earth,  as  the  air  is  above  the  water. 

Now  you  speak  of  the  sea,  says  Mrs. 
Setstar,  I  wish  you  would  tell  me  why  the 
sea-water  is  always  salt.  Madam,  replied 
he,  I  wish  I  could ;  but  it  is  beyond  the 
reach  of  my  philosophy,  and  indeed,  I  be- 
lieve, of  any  philosopher  whatever  ;  although 
some  have  conjectured,  that  the  rivers  in 
their  passage  extract  the  salts  from  the 
earth,  and  convey  them  to  the  sea. 

I  have  often  thought,  from  the  prodigious 
quantity  of  salt  distributed  in  the  earth  and 
water,  that  it  must  have  qualities  which  we 
know  not  of,  and  answer  purposes  in  the  scale 
of  being  with  which  we  are  unacquainted. 

The  most  remarkable  quality  in  the  sea, 
next  to  its  saltness,  is  that  motion  or  rising 
and  falling  of  the  water,  which  we  call  tides, 


88  Of  Mountains  J   Springs,  ^c. 

and  which  is  occasioned  by  the  attraction  of 
the  moon ;  which  I  mentioned  in  my  second 
Lecture  (page  24);  for  that  part  of  the  water 
in  the  great  ocean  which  is  nearest  the  moon 
being  strongly  attracted,  is  raised  higher 
than  the  rest ;  and  the  part  opposite  to  it,  on 
the  contrary  side,  being  least  attracted,  is 
also  higher  than  the  rest ;  and  these  two  op- 
posite sides  of  the  surface  of  the  water,  in 
the  great  ocea^n,  following  the  motion  of  the 
moon  from  east  to  west,  and  striking  against 
the  large  coasts  of  the  continent,  from  thence 
rebound  back  again,  and  so  make  floods  and 
ebbs  in  narrow  seas  and  rivers,  at  a  dis- 
tance from  the  great  ocean.  This  also  oc- 
counts  for  the  periodical  times  of  the  tides, 
and  for  their  constantly  following  the  course 
of  the  moon. 


LECTURE  V. 

OF   MINERALS,  VEGETABLES,   ANB 
ANIMALS. 

COULD   a  Philosopher  condescend  to 
envy  the  great,    it  would  not   be  for  their 
sumptuous  palaces  and  numerous  attendants 
but  for  the  means  and  opportunities   they 
have  of  enquiring  into  the  secrets  of  Nature, 
and  contemplating  the  wonderful   works  of 
God.     There   is  no  subject  so  worthy  of  a 
rational  creature,  except  that  of  promoting 
the  happiness  of  mankind  ;  and  none,  except 
that,  can  give  a  man   of  refined  taste   and 
good  understanding,  so  much  real  satisfac- 
tion.    But  it  is  our  misfortune  that  few  en- 
gage in  those  enquiries  but  men  of  small 
estate,  whose  circumstances  will  not  permit 
them  to  spare  the  time,  nor  support  the  ex- 
pence  of  travelling,    which   is  often  neces- 
sary  to  obtain  the  knowledge  they  seek  af- 
ter  ;  and  for  the  want  of  which  they  are  ob- 
liged to  depend  on  the  relations  of  those  who 
have   not,  perhaps,  been  so  accurate  or   so 
faithful  as  they   ought.     Considering  the 
H  2 


90  OfMinerak. 

quantity  of  drugs  that  are  used,  it  is  amazing 
how  little  even  those  who  deal  in  them  know 
of  the  matter  :  so  little,    indeed,   that  they 
cannot   tell  where  they  grow,  or  how   they 
are  found   or  manufactured ;  are  unable  to 
distinguish  the  genuine  from  the  spurious, 
and   may  therefore,  through  mistake,  often 
substitute  the  one  for  the  other.  Health  and 
life  are  of  too  much  consequence  to  be  tri- 
fled with  ;  yet  these   are   neglected,  while 
fashion,  dress,  and  diversions,  are  sought  af- 
ter throughout  the  world.     This  is  a  melan- 
choly consideration  ;  but  this,  you'll  say,  is 
no  part  of  our  Lecture,  therefore  w^e  shall 
drop  a  subject  which  has  thrust  itself,  as   it 
were,  in  to  our  way,  and  speak  of  the  contents; 
of  the  earth,  and  its  products  and  inhabitants 
for  this  globe,  besides  the  earth  and  water, 
which  are  necessary  for  the  production  and 
support  of  plants  and  animals,  contains  other 
materials  which  have  been  found  useful  to 
man.      That   reflecting  telescope,  this  gold 
watch,   and  Lady   Caroline's  diamond  ear- 
rings, were  all  dug  out  of  the  earth  ;  at  least 
the  materials  were   there  found,  of  which 
these  things  are  composed. 

Those  sorts  of  earth,  which,  with  the  as- 
sistance of  rain,  produce  vegetables  or  plants 


Of  Minerals,  91 

in  such  abundance,  are  common  mould,  loam, 
clay,  and  sandy  soils.  There  areearths  also 
that  are  different  from  these,  and  which 
are  used  in  medicine ;  as  the  Japan  earth, 
Armenian  Bole,   &c. 

The  barren  parts  of  the  earth  are,  for  the 
most  part,  sand,  gravel,  chalk,  and  rocks ; 
for  these  produce  nothing,  unless  they  have 
earth  mixed  with  them. — Of  barren  sands 
there  are  various  kinds,  though  their  chief 
difference  is  in  their  colour ;  for  the  sand 
which  we  throw  on  paper  to  prevent  blotting, 
and  that  the  maid  throws  on  the  floor,  are 
both  composed  of  little  irregular  stones  with- 
out  any  earth;  and  of  such  there  are  large  de- 
serts in  some  parts  of  the  world,  and  one  in 
particular,  where  Cambyses,  an  eastern  mon- 
arch, lost  an  army  of  50,000  men. — Sure 
says  Lady  Caroline,  you  must  mistake,  Sir. 
How  was  it  possible  for  a  whole  army  to  be 
lost  in  that  manner  ?  Why,  Madam,  returned 
the  philosopher,  the  wind,  as  it  frequently 
does  in  those  parts,  raised  the  sands  and 
clouds,  for  many  days  together,  and  the 
whole  army  was  smothered.  And  if  you 
read  the  life  of  Alexander  the  Great,  you'll 
find.  Madam,  that  his  army  was  in  great  dan- 
ger, when  he  crossed  the  same  desert,  in  his 


92  Of  Minerals. 

frantic  expedition  to  visit  the  temple  of  his 
pretended  father,  Jupiter  Ammon. — But 
we  return  to  our  subject. 

Besides  these  materials,  which  compose 
the  surface  of  the  earth,  if  we  dig  deeper, 
we    frequently  find   bodies   very   different 
from  those   we  discover  near  the  surface  ; 
and  these,  because  they  are  discovered  by 
digging  into  the  bowels  of  the  earth,  are 
called  by  the  common   name  of    Fossils; 
though  under  this  head  are  included  all  me* 
tals  and  metallic  ores,  minerals,  or  half  me. 
tals,  stones  of  various  sorts,  petrifactions, 
or  animal  substances  turned  into  stone  ;  and 
many  other  bodies  which  have   a  texture 
between  stone  and  earth ;  as  oker  of  seve- 
ral sorts,  with  one  of   which  the  farmers 
colour  their  sheep ;  black  lead,  with  which 
are  made   those   pencils  that   we   use   for 
drawing ;  and  some  kinds  of  chalk,  sea-coal, 
and  other  bodies  that  are  harder  than  earth, 
and  yet  not  of  the  consistency  of  perfect 
stone. 

Of  stones  there  is  an  amazing  variety. 
They  are  classed  by  naturalists  under  two 
heads;  that  is  to  say,  spars  and  crystals; 
and  by  others,  into  vulgar  and  precious 
stones.     Some  of  the  most  considerable^ 


Of  Minerals.  93 

both  for  beauty  and  use,  are  marble,  ala- 
baster, porphyry,  granite,  free-stone,  &c. 
Flints,  agates,  cornelians,  and  pebbles,  un- 
der which  kind  are  placed  the  precious 
stones,  otherwise  called  gems  or  jewels  ; 
which  are  only  stones  of  an  excessive  hard- 
ness, and  which,  when  cut  and  polished, 
have  an  extraordinary  lustre.  The  most 
valuable  of  these  are  diamonds,  rubies, 
sapphires,  amethysts,  emeralds,  topazes, 
and  opals. 

But  there  are  other  stones  which,  tho' 
void  of  beauty,  may  perhaps,  have  more  vir- 
tue than  many  of  those  already  mentioned  ; 
such  as  the  loadstone,  which  I  described  to 
you  in  my  first  Lecture  (p.  11.);  also  the 
whetstones,  with  which  w^e  sharpen  our 
knives  and  other  edge  tools  ;  limestones, 
talc,  calamine,  or  lapis  calaminaris,  and 
many  others. 

Besides  the  bodies  already  mentioned, 
there  is  also  found  in  the  earth  a  variety  of 
salts  ;  such  as  rock-salt  or  sal-gem,  vitriol, 
nitre,  and  many  others. 

The  minerals,  marcasites,  or  semi-metals, 
as  they  are  sometimes  called  by  the  chemists 
are  antimony,  zink,  bismuth,  &c.  These 
are  not  ductile,  or  malleable,  but  are  hard 


94  Of  Minerals. 

and  brittle,  and  may  be  reduced  to  powder ; 
and  the  first,  after  melting,  may  be  calcined 
by  fire. 

Mercury,  or  quicksilver,  has  generally 
been  classed  with  semi-metals,  and  indeed, 
sometimes  among  the  metals;  but  I  think  it 
ought  not  to  be  classed  under  either  of  these 
heads,  but  considered  separately;  as  also 
should  brimstone,  though  it  be  a  part  of  the 
composition  of  crude  Antimony. 

Ores  are  those  kinds  of  earth  which  are 
dug  out  of  mines,  and  that  contain  in  them 
metallic  particles  :  from  whence  metals  are 
extracted. 

Their  form  when  dug  from  the  mine  is 
very  different  from  that  which  they  assume 
when  they  have  been  melted  in  the  furnace, 
and  polished  by  the  art  of  man.  The  most 
precious  metals,  as  gold  and  silver,  do  not 
form  the  most  splendid  ores.  The  pyrites, 
which  are  a  mixture  of  iron  and  sulphur,  are 
much  more  beautiful  to  the  eye. 

The  trade  of  a  miner  is  the  most  wretched 
and  dangerous  of  all;  he  is  not  only  exposed 
to  the  common  accidents  of  the  roof  falling 
in,  or  a  sudden  overflow  of  water,  but  also 
to  a  variety  oi  damps  as  they  are  called,  or 
noxious  vapours.    In  the  quicksilver  mines. 


OfMinerah.  95 

the  sufieringsof  the  workmen  are  deplorable; 
their  bodies  are  so  impregnated  with  the 
mineral,  that  they  soon  become  emaciated 
and  crippled,  every  limb  contracted  or  con- 
vulsed, and  soon  end  their  miserable  exis- 
tence in  a  consumptive  state  :  and  this  they 
sustain  for  the  trifling  reward  of  seven  pence 
a  day. 

Metals  are  distinguished  from  other  bo- 
dies  by  their  weight,  fusibility,  or  melting 
in  the  fire,  and  their  malleability,  or  giving 
way  and  extending  under  the  stroke  of  the 
hammer  without  breaking  in  pieces.  These 
are  six,  viz.  gold,  silver,  copper,  tin,  lead, 
and  iron.*  They  are  seldom  or  never  found 
in  any  part  of  the  earth  but  what  is  moun- 
tainous, which,  by  the  way,  in  some  mea- 
sure proves  what  wc  ventured  to  assert  in 
in  a  former  Lecture,  viz.  that  there  were 
mountains  before  the  deluge  ;  for  that  there 
were  metals  before  that  time,  appears  by 
what  is  said  in  holy  writ  concerning  Tubal 
Cain,  who  wrought  in  brass,  &c.  and  was 
the  inventer  of  organs. 

*  Modern  chemists  now  reckon  not  less  than  22  or  23 
different  metals  ;  and  the  term  semi'mctal  is  at  present 
generally  exploded. — Ed. 


96  Of  Minerals. 

What  sort  of  bodies  are  to  be  found 
deeper  in  the  earth,  I  mean  towards  its  cen- 
tre, is  unknown  to  us  ;  for  we  can  only  make 
ourselves  acquainted  with  the  fossils  con- 
tained in  its  shell,  and  the  vegetables  and 
animals  on  its  surface,  whose  nature  and 
properties  alone  are,  indeed,  too  many,  to 
be  discovered  by  human  sagacity. 


—97— 


OF  VEGETABLES  OR  PLANTS. 

The  vegetables  or  plants  growing  on  the 
earth,  may  be  divided  into  three  classes  ;  I 
mean  those  of  herbs,  shrubs,  and  trees. 

Herbs  are  those  sorts  of  vegetables  whose 
stalks  are  soft,  and  have  no  wood  in  them;  as 
parsley,  lettuce,  violets,  pinks,  gras-s,  nettles, 
thistles,  and  an  infinite  number  of  others. 

Shrubs  are  those  plants  which,  though 
woody,  never  grow  into  trees,  but  bow  down 
their  branches  near  the  earth's  surface. 
Such  are  those  plants  that  produce  roses, 
honey-suckles,  goose-berries,  currants,  and 
the  like. 

But  trees  shoot  up  in  one  great  stem  of 
body,  and  rise  to  a  considerable  distance 
from  the  ground,  before  they  spread  their 
branches  ;  as  may  be  seen  by  the  oak,  the 
beech,  the  elm,  the  ash,  the  fir,  the  walnut- 
tree,  cherry-tree,  &c.  From  the  bodies  of 
trees  we  have  our  timber  for  building  ;  and 
of  the  oak-tree  in  particular  for  ship-build- 
ing, no  timber  being  so  tough,  strong,  and 
durable,  as  oak  ;  neither  does  any  tree,  per- 
haps, yield  more  timber. 
I 


98  Of  Vegetables. 

"  From  a  small  acorn  see  the  oak  arise, 
Supremely  tall,  and  tow'ring  to  the  skies  ! 
Queen  of  the  groves,  her  stately  head  she  rears, 
Her  bulk  increasing  by  the  length  of  years  : 
Now  ploughs  the  sea,  a  rich,  commercial  ship, 
Or  in  her  womb  destructive  thunders  sleep. 

The  most  considerable  parts  of  plants  are 
the  root,  the  stalk,  the  leaves,  the  flowers, 
and  the  seed  ;  most  of  them  have  these  se- 
veral parts,  though  there  are  some,  indeed, 
that  have  no  stalk,  as  the  aloe  ;  others  that 
have  no  leaves,  as  savine ;  and  others  that 
have  no  flowers,  as  fern.  But  I  think  there 
are  none  without  root  or  seed. 

What  most  excites  our  wonder  with  re- 
spect  to  plants  (and  what,  indeed,  has  been 
the  subject  of  much  dispute  among  the 
learned)  is  their  nourishment  and  propaga- 
tion.  This,  says  Master  Blossom,  I  have 

ofteii  heard  my  father  discourse  upon  when 
I  have  been  in  the  garden  with  him  ;  but  as 
what  he  said  has  escaped  my  memory,  I 
I  should  be  glad,  Sir,  if  you  would  tell  me 
how  they  receive  their  nourishment,  and  how 
their  species  are  propagated.  A  disquisi- 
tion of  this  nature,  says  the  little  Philoso- 
pher, would  take  up  too  much  of  your  time, 
and  could  not  be  understood  without  reci- 


Of  Vegetables.  93 

ting  many  experiments  and  observations  that 
have  been  made  by  the  learned :  I  shall 
therefore  defer  the  consideration  of  it  at 
present.  I  see  no  reason  for  that,  says  Mas- 
ter Wilson  ;  nor  to  me  does  there  appear 
any  difficulty  in  the  affair.  Why,  they  re- 
ceive their  nourishment  from  the  earth,  don't 
they  ?  And  you  sow  the  seeds  of  the  old 
plants,  and  they  produce  new  ones. 

You  are  too  apt.  Master  Wilson,  says  the 
Philosopher,  to  talk  about  things  you  don't 
understand.  The  earth  has  not,  perhaps,  so 
much  to  do  with  the  nourishment  of  plants 
as  is  generally  imagined ;  for,  without  wa- 
ter, and  particularly  rain-w^ater  and  dew, 
there  could  be  but  little  increase  in  vegeta- 
bles of  any  kind  ;  and  this  you  may  know 
by  the  languid  state  of  plants  in  a  dry  sea- 
son, though  watered  ever  so  often  from  the 
river  or  w^ell.  This  is  knov/n  also  by  the 
small  quantity  of  earth  which  is  taken  up  in 
the  growth  of  plants  ;  for  both  Mr.  Boyle 
and  Dr.  Woodward  raised  several  plants  in 
earth  watered  with  rain  or  spring- water, 
and  even  distilled  water  ;  and  upon  weigh- 
ing the  dry  earth,  both  before  and  after  the 
production  of  the  plants,  they  have  found 
that  very  little  of  it  was  diminished  or  taken 


100  Of  Vegetables. 

up  by  the  plant.  Taken  up  by  the  plant ! 
says  Lady  Carolme,  in  some  surprise  ;  why, 
you  don't  imagine  there  is  earth  in  herbs  and 
trees? — Indeed  I  do,  Madam,  replied  the 
little  Philosopher,  and  have  already  hinted 
as  much  in  what  was  said  on  the  four  ele- 
ments, and  at  the  same  time  told  your  Lady- 
ship, if  I  mistake  not,  how  it  might  be 
extracted  from  the  plant;  which  was,  by 
burning  the  plant  to  ashes,  and  washing  off 
the  salts,  as  your  laundry -maid  does  when 
she  makes  lye ;  for  when  those  salts  are 
washed  away,  tj^e  remainder  will  be  earth. 
If  the  earth  contributes  so  little  towards 
the  production  of  plants,  says  Blyth,  the 
water,  I  apprehend,  must  be  a  good  deal 
concerned :  and  that  is  evident  from  the 
quantity  of  water  which  most  plants  require 
to  keep  them  in  a  state  of  health  and  vi- 
gour.— Your  observations,  says  the  philoso- 
pher, deserve  some  notice ;  but  how  will 
you  account  for  the  growth  of  plants  in 
sandy  deserts,  where  it  seldom  rains,  and 
of  plants  too  that  contain  juices  in  great 
abundance  ?  for  God  Almighty,  for  the  pre- 
servation of  his  creatures,  has  caused  those 
wonderful  plants  to  grow  in  such  barren  de- 
serts, to  supply  in  some  measure  the  want 


Of  Vegetables.  101 

of  water ;  and  some  are  so  constructed  as 
to  hold  great  quantities  of  water  for  the  use 
of  animals.     This  is  the  case  of  the  ground- 
pine,  which,  though  it  seems  to  grow  like 
a  fungus  or  excrescence  on  the  branch  of 
of  a  tree,  often  coMains  a  pint  or  a  quart  of 
sweet   water  for  the  birds,  beasts  and  even 
men,  to  refresh  themselves  with  in  the  sul- 
trj^  climates   where   they  abound.     But   a 
plant  may  hold  much  water  for  the  subsist- 
ence of  animals,  and  yet  not  subsist  on  wa- 
ter itself ;  and  that  this  is  the  case  experi- 
ence testifies.     Dr.  Woodward  put  a  plant 
of    spearmint,    which   weighed  27  grains, 
into  a  phial  of  w^ater  where  it  stood  77  days, 
and  in   that  time    drank  up  2,558  grains  of 
spring  water:    and  then  being  taken  out, 
weighed  42  grains  ;  so  that  the  increase  was 
only  15  grains,  which  is  not  an  hundredth 
part  of  the  water  expended. 

What  the  plant  can  obtain  by  the  earth, 
water,  and  otherwise,  for  its  nourishment, 
is  generally  supposed  to  be  received  by  the 
fibres  of  the  roots,  and  conveyed  by  the  stalk 
or  body  of  the  plant  up  into  the  branches  ^ 
and  leaves  through  small  tubes,  and  then  re^ 
turned  by  the  bark  to  the  root  again  ;  so  that 

there  is  a  constant  circulation  of  vital  fluids 
12 


102  Of  Vegetables. 

ill  plants  as  well  as  In  animals.  But  I  am 
inclined  to  think,  that  a  great  part  of  the 
nourishment  of  plants  is  received  by  the 
pores  of  the  leaves  and  skin,  or  bark,  *as 
well  as  from  the  root ;  else  how  happens  it 
that  plants  are  so  much  refreshed  by  the 
dew? 

Plants  also  require  air  for  their  nourish- 
ment, as  well  as  a  circulation  of  these  ali- 
mentary juices ;  for  they  respire  as  well  as 
animals,  and  for  that  respiration  require 
fresh  air,  and  even  exercise  ;  since  we  know 
that  plants  that  are  always  confined  in  a  close 
room  will  never  rise  to  perfection  :  and  that 
they  perspire  as  well  as  animals  is  evident 
from  the  instance  of  the  mint  growing  in 
spring-water  above-mentioned ;  for,  if  not 
a  hundredth  part  of  the  water  taken  up  by 
that  plant  became  a  part  of  the  plant  itself^ 
all  the  rest  must  be  perspired  through  the 
pores  or  little  imperceptible  holes  in  the  skin 
and  leaves. — This  calls  to  my  mind,  says 
Lady  Caroline,  a  charge  Mr.  Setstar  gave 
me ;  which  was,  never  to  sit  in  the  yew- 
arbor  ;  for  the  matter  perspired  by  the  yew- 
tree,  says  he,  is  noxious,  and  will  make 
vou  ill ;  and  I  believe  that  was  the  reason 


Of  Vegetables.  103 

of  his  ordering  that  old  arbor  to  be  demo- 
lished. 

But  pray,  why,  and  in  what  manner  do 
plants  perspire  ?  For  the  same  reason,  and 
in  the  same  manner,  perhaps,  that  animals 
do,  returned  the  philosopher.  It  is  occa- 
sioned", probably,  by  heat ;  for  we  know 
they  perspire  abundantly  more  in  summer 
than  in  winter ;  nay,  when  this  vegetative 
principle  has  been  long  checked  by  cold,  it 
breaks  out  with  such  force  when  warm 
weather  comes  on,  that  it  is  no  uncommon 
thing,  in  the  cold  northern  countries,  to  see 
the  trees  covered  with  snow  one  week,  and 
with  blossoms  the  next. 

Plants  are  propagated  different  ways  ;  but 
the  most  general  method  is  by  seed.  Some 
plants,  however,  are  raised  by  a  part  of  the 
root  of  the  old  plant  set  in  the  ground,  as 
potatoes ;  others,  by  new  roots  propagated 
from  the  old  ones,  as  hyacinths  and  tulips ; 
others  by  cutting  off  branches,  and  putting 
them  into  the  ground,  which  will  there 
take  root  and  grow,  as  vines ;  and  others 
are  propagated  by  grafting  and  budding,  or  ' 
inoculation. 


—104— 


OF  ANIMALS. 

We  are  now  to  speak  of  the  animals  that 
inhabit  the  earth,  which  are  naturally  di- 
vided  into  Men  and  Brutes. 

Of  Men  there  seem  to  be  four  different 
sorts. — Nay,  don't  be  frightened.  Lady  Ca- 
roline  !— -Sir,  says  she,  I  should  have  made 
no  objection,  had  you  said  four  hundred, 
provided  you  had  distinguished  them  ac- 
cording   to   their  different   dispositions. — 
True,  Madam,  says  the  philosopher,  or  ac- 
cording to  their  different  features,  and  then 
you  might  have  said  four  hundred  thousand ; 
for  it  is  very  true,  though  very  wonderful, 
that  out  of  four  hundred  thousand  faces  you 
will  not  find  two  exactly  alike  ;  and  but  for 
this  miraculous  and  gracious  providence  in 
God,  the  world  would  have  been  all  in  con- 
fusion.    But  the  division  I  would  willingly 
make  of  men.  Lady   Caroline,    is  that  of 
white,  tawliy,  black,    and    red;  and   these 
vou  will  allow  are,  with  respect  to  colour, 
essentially    different.     Most   of  the   Euro- 
peans, and  some  of  the  Asiatics,  are  white  ♦ 
the  Africans  on  the  coast  of  the  Mediterra- 


Of  Animals,  105 

nean  Sea  are  tawny  ;  those  on  the  coast  of 
Guinea  black  ;  and  the  original  Americans 
red,  or  of  a  red  copper  colour.  How  they 
came  so,  is  only  known  to  their  Maker ; 
and  therefore  I  beg  you  would  spare  your- 
selves the  trouble  of  asking  any  question 
on  that  head. 

Brutes  may  be  divided  into  four  classes  ; 
that  is  to  say,  1.  Aerial,  or  such  as  have 
wings,  and  fly  in  the  air  ;  as  birds,  wasps, 
flies,  &c.  2.  Terrestrial,  or  those  which 
are  confined  to  the  earth ;  as  quadrupeds,  or 
four-footed  beasts  ;  reptiles  w^hich  have  many 
feet,  and  serpents,  which  have  no  feet  at 
all.^  3.  Aquatic,  or  those  that  live  in  the 
water ;  as  fish  of  all  kinds,  whether  they  are 
covered  with  scales  or  shells,  or  are,  like 
the  eel,  without  either.  4.  Amphibi- 
ous, or  those  that  can  live  for  a  long  time 
either  upon  the  earth  or  in  the  w^ater  ;  as 
otters,  aligators,  turtles,  &c.  I  say  for  a 
long  time,  because  I  apprehend  that  the  use 
of  both  these  elements  are  necessary  for  the 
subsistence  of  those  animals  ;  and  that  tho' 
they  can  live  for  a  considerable  time  upon 
land  in  the  open  air,  or  as  long  in  the  water, 
excluded  in  a  manner  from  air,  yet  they 
would  languish  an^  die  if  confined  entirely 


106  Of  Animals. 

either  to    one  or  the   other   of  these  ele- 
ments. 

In  this  division  of  animals  we  are  to  ob- 
serve,  however,  that  there  are  some  which 
cannot  be  considered  under  either  class, 
being  as  it  were,  of  a  middle  nature,  and 
partaking  of  two  kinds  :  thus,  bats  seem  to 
be  partly  beasts  and  partly  birds.  Some 
reptiles,  likewise,  and  some  of  the  water- 
animals,  want  one  or  more  of  the  five  sen- 
ses with  which  others  are  endowed;  as 
worms,  cockles,  oysters,  &c. — If  I  mistake 
not,  says  Lady  Caroline,  I  have  seen  the 
animals  divided  into  different  classes  m 
books  of  natural  history,  and  described  un- 
der the  heads  of  beasts,  birds,  fishes,  and 
insects.  Very  true,  says  the  philosopher, 
but  the  present  method  suits  my  present 
purpose  the  best,  and  can  make  no  altera- 
tion in  the  nature  of  things  ;  however,  as  I 
have  not  yet  mentioned  the  word  Insects, 
though  they  are  included  in  my  division  of 
animals,  it  may  be  necessary  for  me  to  ob- 
serve, that  they  are  so  called  from  a  sepa- 
ration in  their  bodies,  by  which  they  are 
seemingly  divided  into  two  parts,  those  parts 
being  only  joined  together  by  a  small  liga- 
ment ;  as  in  flies,   wasps,    &c.     Some   of 


Of  Animak.  107 

these  insects  undergo  different  changes,  and 
in  time  become  quite  different  animals. 
There  is  something  so  amazing  and  mira- 
culous in  the  transformation  of  insects,  that 
1  am  lost  in  reflection  whenever  the  subject 
strikes  my  mind  ;  and  sometimes  inclined  to 
think  that  other  animals  may  undergo  some 
such  change.  Who,  that  had  not  made 
the  observation,  would  think  that  this  grub, 
crawling,  or  rather  sleeping  here,  would 
by-and-by  become  a  fine  butterfly,  decked 
out  in  all  the  gaudy  colours  of  the  rain- 
bow ;  or  that  this  silkworm  should  be  capa- 
ble of  assuming  so  many  different  forms ! 
And  is  it  not  altogether  as  miraculous,  that 
if  some  animals  are  cut  in  pieces,  every  se- 
parate piece  or  part  of  the  original  animal 
will  become  one  entire  animal  of  itself?  Yet 
that  the  polype  or  polypus  is  endowed  with 
this  property,  has  been  demonstrated  ;  and  I 
have  here  one  that  was  divided  into  several 
parts  some  time  ago,  which  parts  are  now 
become  distinct  and  perfect  polypes,  and 
alive ;  as  you  may  see  by  viewing  them 
through  this  miscroscope. 


108 


Of  Animals^ 


The  part  marked  A,  contains  the  magni- 
fymg  glasses.  The  object  to  be  examined 
is  placed  at  the  stage  B,  between  a  hollow 
and  a  plane  g^ss  ;  the  light  is  reflected  up- 
on it  by  the  mirror  C.  To  adjust  the  ob- 
ject to  the  glasses,  you  move  the  stage  B 
up  or  down  upon  the  pillar,  while  you  are 
looking  through  the  glasses  at  A,  till  the 
objects  appear  the  most  distinct, — Master 


Of  Ammah.  109 

Telescope  then  placed  one  of  the  polypes  in 
the  microscope,  and  begged  Lady  Caroline 
to  look  at  it. — This  is  really  wonderful,  says 
Lady  Caroline,  for  the  polypus  seems  now  to 
be  40  or  50  times  bigger  than  it  was  before. 
Your  wonder  will  be  increased  still  more, 
Madam,  replied  our  Philosopher,  when 
I  inform  you,  that  it  is  supposed  there  are 
as  many  animals  \vhich  can  only  be  disco- 
vered by  the  microscope,  as  those  we  can  see 
without  it. 

Master  Telescope  having  satisfied  the  cu- 
riosity of  the  young  gentlemen  by  letting 
them  see  this  wonderful  instrument,  pro- 
ceeded in  his  Lecture. 

But  the  sagacity  and  acute  senses  of  som.e 
of  the  animals  (in  which  they  seem  to  ex- 
ceed man)  are  altogether  as  surprising  :  bea- 
vers building  houses ;  bees  forming  them- 
selves into  a  society  and  chsooing  a  queen  to 
govern  them ;  birds  knowing  the  latitude 
and  longitude,  and  sailing  over  sea,  through 
vast  tracts  of  air,  from  one  country  to  ano- 
ther, without  the  use  of  any  compass  ;  and 
other  things  which  are  sufficient^  I  think, 
ta  lower  the  pride  of  man,  and  make  even 
philosophers  blush  at  their  own  ignorance. 

— And  now.    Lady    Caroline,   prepare  to 
K 


no  Of  Animals. 

hear  a  few  hard  words,  and  I  will  finish  this 
Lecture.  But  why  must  it  be  finished  m 
an  unintelligible  manner?  says  the  Lady. 
Because  I  cannot  deliver  what  I  am  going 
to  say,  without  making  use  of  the  terms  of 
art ;  and  those  I  w^ould  recommend  your 
Ladyship,  and  the  rest  of  the  good  com- 
pany, to  learn  from  Walker'^ s  Pronouncing 
and  Explanatory  Dictionary ;  which  is  a 
work  no  young  reader  should  omit  having 
in  his  library. 

All  animals  receive  their  food  at  the 
mouth  ;  and  most  animals,  but  especially 
those  of  the  human  kind,  chew  it  there  till  it 
is  intimately  mixed  with  the  saliva  or  spittle, 
and  thereby  prepared  for  the  easier  and  bet- 
ter digestion  of  the  stomach.  When  the 
stomach  has  digested  the  food,  it  is  thence 
conveyed  into  the  guts  (pardon  the  expres- 
sion, Ladies,  for  I  cannot  avoid  it)  through 
w^iich  it  is  moved  gently  by  what  is  called 
the  peristaltic  motion;  as  it  passes  there,  the 
chyle,  which  is  the  nutritive  part,  is  separa- 
ted by  the  lacteal  veins,  from  the  excrcme;i- 
titious  parts,  and  by  them  conveyed  into  the 
blood,  wdth  which  it  circulates,  and  is  con- 
cocted  into  blood  also  ;  and  this  circulation 
is  thus  performed  :  The  blood  being  by  the 


Of  Animals.  Ill 

vena  cava^  brought  into  the  right  ventricle  of 
the  heart,  by  the  contraction  of  that  muscle, 
is  forced  into  the  pulmonary  artery  of  the 
lungs  ;  where  the  air,  which  is  continually 
inspired  or  drawn  in  by  the  lungs,  mixes 
with  and  enlivens  it ;  and  from  thence,  the 
blood  being  conveyed  by  the  pulmonary 
vein  into  the  left  ventricle  of  the  heart,  the 
contraction  of  the  heart  forces  it  out,  and  by 
the  arteries  distributes  it  into  all  parts  of  the 
body ;  from  whence  it  returns  by  the  veins 
to  the  right  ventricle  of  the  heart,  to 
pursue  the  same  course  again,  in  order 
to  communicate  life  and  heat  to  every  part 
of  this  wonderful  machine,  the  body.  But 
this  is  not  all ;  for,  according  to  Anatomists, 
some  part  of  the  blood,  in  the  course  of  its 
circulation,  goes  to  the  head ;  v/here  a  por- 
tion of  it  is  separated  by  the  brain,  and  con- 
cocted into  animal  spirits,  which  are  distri- 
buted by  the  nerves,  and  impart  sense  and 
motion  throughout  the  body.  The  instru- 
ments of  motion,  however,  are  the  mus- 
cles ;  the  fibres,  or  small  threads,  whereof, 
contracting  themselves,  move  the  difierent 
parts  of  the  body  ;  which  in  some  of  them 
is  done  by  direction  of  the  mind,  and  called 
voluntary  motion ;  but,  in  others,  the  mind 


112  OfAmmals. 

seems  not  to  be  concerned,  and  therefore 
these  motions  are  called  involuntary. 

This  is  the  progress  of  animal  life  ;  by 
which  you  will  perceive  that  a  man  may, 
even  at  home,  and  within  himself,  see  the 
Wonders  of  God  in  the  Works  of  Creation. 

We  have  now  finished  our  survey  of  the 
Universe,  and  considered  those  great  masses 
of  matter,  the  Stars  and  Planets;  but  parti- 
cularly our  earth  and  its  inhabitants  ;  all 
w^hich  large  bodies  are  made  up  of  incon- 
ceivable small  bodies,  or  atoms :  And  by 
the  figure,  texture,  bulk,  and  motion  of  these 
insensible  corpuscles,  or  infinitely  small  bo- 
dies, all  the  phaenomena  of  large  bodies 
may  be  explained. 


--US- 
LECTURE  VI. 

OF    THE    FIVE     SENSES    OF     MAN,    AND    OF 
HIS    UNDERSTANDING. 

AT  our  next  meeting  there  was  a  great 
deal  of  good  company,  who  came  to  hear 
the  Boys  Philosophy,  as  they  called  it ;  ou 
w^hich  account  I  could  observe  that  Master 
Telescope  took  less  pains  to  be  understood 
by  the  young  gentlemen  and  ladies ;  and 
addressed  himself  more  particularly  to  those 
of  greater  abilities. 

As  the  company  came  in  laughing,  and 
affected  to  talk  and  behave  in  a  supercilious 
manner  (which  even  some  great  personages 
do  in  these  our  days  of  refinement)  he  stood 
silent  till  Mr.  Setstar  desired  him  to  open 
the  Lecture  ;  upon  which  he  began  ;  but 
had  scarcely  spoken  three  words  before  he 
was  interrupted  by  Master  Harry  :  he  there- 
fore stopped  for  some  time,  and  then  began 
again  ;  but  the  tongue  of  the  young  gentle- 
man soon  silenced  him  ;  and  he  stood  with- 
out speaking  a  considerable  time.     On  this 

the  company  looked  at  each  other  ;  and  Mr. 

K  2 


1 14        Of  the  Five  Senses  of  Man, 

Setstar  bade  him  go  on.  My  dear,  says 
Mrs.  Setstar,  how  can  you  expect  this  young 
gentleman  to  read  a  long  Lecture,  when  you 
know  that  Master  Harry,  who  loves  to  hear 
himself  talk,  of  all  things,  has  not  patience 

to  support  so   much  taciturnity  ? Why, 

Madam,  says  the  Ambassador  of  Bantam 
(who  came  in  with  Mr.  Setstar,)  I  thought 
we  had  all  been  assembled  to  hear  this  Lec- 
ture.  That  was   indeed  the  intention  of 

our  meeting,  says  the  Lady  ;  but  1  hope  you 
know  the  polite  world  better,  than  to  expect 
people  should  be  so  old  fashioned  as  to  be- 
have on  these  occasions  with  any  sort  of 
good  manners  or  decorum.  In  my  country, 
says  the  Ambassador,  all  the  company  k^ep 

a  profound  silence  at  these  meetings. 

It  may  be  so,  replied  Mrs.  Setstar ;  but  I 
assure  your  excellency,  it  is  not  the  custom 
here.  Why,  sir,  I  have  been  often  inter- 
rupted in  the  middle  of  a  fine  air,  at  an  Ora- 
torio, by  a  gentleman  whistling  a  hornpipe ; 
and,  at  Concerts  of  Sacred  Music  it  is  no 
uncommon  thing  to  hear  both  gentlemen  and 

ladies    laugh   louder   than   the  organ. 

Hush,  Madam,  says  Mr.  Setstar,  if  your 
friends  and  neighbours  are  fools,  you  ought 
.not  to  expose  them,    and  especially  to  fo- 


and  of  his  Understanding.  115 

reigiiers.  Take  care,  while  you  condemn 
this  unpolitc  behaviour  in  others,  that  you 
do  not  run  into  it  yourself.  Politeness  is 
the  art  of  being  always  agreeable  in  compa- 
ny ;  it  can  therefore  seldom  deal  in  sarcasm 
or  irony ;  because  it  should  never  do  any- 
thing to  abridge  the  happiness  of  others  ; 
and  you  see,  my  dear,  you  have  made  Mas- 
ter  Harry  uneasy,  for  he  blushes. The 

company  laughed  at  Harry,  who  joined  them  ; 
and  being  determined  to  hold  his  tongue, 
our  Philosopher  thus  proceeded  : 

After  the  cursory  view  of  nature,  which 
was  concluded  in  my  last  juecture,  it  may 
not  be  amiss  to  examine  our  own  faculties, 
and  see  by  what  means  we  acquire  and  trea- 
sure up  a  knowledge  of  those  things ;  and 
this  is  done,  I  apprehend,  by  means  of  the 
senses,  the  operations  of  the  mind,  and  the 
memory;  which  last  may  be  called  the 
Storehouse  of  the  Understanding.  The  first 
time  little  master  is  brought  to  a  looking- 
glass  he  thinks  he  has  found  a  newplay-mate, 
and  calls  out.  Little  boy !  Little  boy !  for  hav- 
ing never  seen  his  own  face  before,  it  is  no 
wonder  that  he  should  not  know  it.  Here 
is  the  idea,  therefore,  of  something  new  ac- 
quired by  sight. Presently  the  father^ 


116        Of  the  Five  Senses  of  Man, 

and  mother,  and  nurse  come  forward  to  par 
take  of  the  child's  diversion.  Upon  seeing 
these  figures  in  the  glass  with  whom  he  is  so 
well  acquainted,  he  immediately  calls  out, 
There,  Papa!  there,  Mamma!  there.  Nurse! 

And  now  the  mind  begins  to  operate  : 

for  feeling  his  father's  hand  on  his  own  head, 
and  seeing  it  on  the  little  boy's  head  in  the 
glass,  he  cries,  There  me  !  Now  this  trans- 
action is  lodged  in  the  memory,  w^hich, 
whenever  a  looking-glass  is  mentioned,  will 
give  back  to  the  mind  this  idea  of  its  reflect- 
ing objects. 

The  whole  company  were  pleased  with 
this  familiar  demonstration  ;  but  Harry  asked 
how  he  came,  of  all  things,  to  make  use  of  a 

looking-glass  ? Because,  Sir,  says  he,  it 

is  an  object  with  which  some  people  are  the 

most  intimately  acquainted. As  Harry  is 

an  egregious  fop,  this  reply  produced  a  loud 
laugh  ;  and  Master  Telescope  was  looked 
upon  to  be  a  Wit,  as  well  as  a  Philosopher. 
However,  I  am  inclined  to  think  the  expres- 
sion was  accidental,  and  not  intended  to  hit 
Master  Harry,  because  I  know  his  good 
sense  would  not  permit  him  to  treat  an  elder 
and  superior  in  that  manner. -The  laugh 


and  of  his  Understanding.  117 

being  a  little  subsided,  our  Philosopher  thus, 
proceeded  on  his  Lecture  ; 

All  our  ideas,  therefore,  are  obtained 
cither  by  sensation  or  reflection  ;  that  is  to  say, 
by  means  of  our  five  senses  ;  as  seeing,  hear- 
ing, smelling,  tasting,  and  touching,  or  by 
the  operations  of  the  mind. 

Before  you  proceed  farther,  says  Mrs. 
Twilight,  you  should,  I  think,  explain  to  the 
company  vv^hat  is  meant  by   the  term  Idea. 

That  I  apprehend,   is  sufficiently  ex- 

plained  by  what  was  said  about  the  looking- 
glass,  says  the  Philosopher  ;  but  if  you  re- 
quire another  definition,  you  shall  have  it. 
By  an  Idea,  then  I  mean  that  image  or  pic- 
ture which  is  formed  in  the  mind,  of  any 
thing  which  we  have  seen,  or  even  heard 
talk  of;  for  the  mind  is  so  adroit  and  ready 
at  this  kind  of  painting,  that  a  town,  for  in- 
stance, is  no  sooner  mentioned,  but  the  ima- 
gination shapes  it  into  form,  and  presents  it 
to  the  memory.  None  of  this  company,  I  pre- 
sume, have  ever  seen  Paris  ;  yet  there  is 
not  one  perhaps,  but  has  formed,  or  conceiv- 
ed in  his  mind,  some  idea  or  picture  of  that 
city.  Not  one  of  us  ever  saw  Tippoo  Saib's 
prodigious  army  and  elephants,  yet  we  have 
all  formed  to  ourselves  a  picture  of  their  run- 


118         Of  the  Five  Senses  ofMan^ 

iiing  away  from  a  small  party  of  Englishmen, 
led  against  them  by  the  courageous  Corn- 
wallis.  When  we  read  in  the  news-papers 
a  description  of  a  sea  engagement,  or  the 
taking  of  Louisburg,  Quebec,  or  any  other 
important  fortress,  the  mind  immediately 
gives  us  a  picture  of  the  transaction,  and  we 
see  the  officers  issuing  their  orders,  and  their 
intrepid  men  furling  their  sails,  firing  guns, 
scaling  the  walls,  and  driving  their  foes  be- 
fore them.  To  pursue  this  subject  a  little 
farther  :  No  man  has  ever  seen  a  dragon,  a 
griffin,  or  a  fairy;  yet  every  one  has  formed 
in  his  mind  a  picture-image,  or,  in  other 
words,  an  idea  of  these  imaginary  beings. 
Now  when  this  idea  or  image  is  formed  in 
the  mind  from  a  view  of  the  object  itself,  it 
may  be  called  an  adequate  or  real  idea  ;  but 
when  it  is  conceived  in  the  mind  without 
seeing  the  object,  it  is  an  inadequate  or  im- 
aginary  idea. 

I  shall  begin  my  discourse  of  the  Senses 
with  that  of  the  Sight,  says  he,  because,  as 
Mr.  Addison  observes,  the  sight  is  the  most 
perfect  and  pleasing  of  them  all.  The  organ 
of  seeing  is  the  eye,  which  is  made  up  of  a 
number  of  parts,  and  so  wonderfully  con- 
trived for  admitting  and  refracting  the  rays 


and  of  his  Understanding.  119 

of  light,  that  those  which  come  from  the 
same  point  of  the  object,  and  fail  upon  difr 
ferent  parts  of  the  pupil,  are  again  brought 
together  at  the  bottom  of  the  eye  ;  and  by 
that  means  the  whole  object  is  painted  on  a 
membrane  called  the  Retina,  which  is  spread 
there. 

But  how  is  it  possible,  says  Master  Har- 
ry,  for  you  to  know  that  the  object  is  thus 

painted  on  the  retina  ? In  some  measure 

from  the  structure  of  the  eye,  replied  the 
Philosopher;  but,  I  think,  it  is  manifest 
from  that  disorder  of  the  eye,  which  sur- 
geons call  the  gutta  serena  ;  the  very  com- 
plaint which  Mr.  Setstar's  butler  has  in  one 
oi  his  eyes.  If  you  examine  it,  you  will 
find  that  he  has  no  sight  with  that  eye,  tho' 
it  looks  as  perfect  as  the  other,  with  which 
he  sees  well ;  this  is,  therefore,  occasioned 
by  some  paralytic,  or  other  disorder  in  that 
membrane,  or  expansion  of  the  optic  nerve, 
which  we  call  the  Retina ;  and  proves  that 
all  vision  arises  from  thence. 

That  which  produces  in  us  the  sensation 
which  we  call  seeing,  is  light ;  for  without 
light  nothing  is  visible.  Now  light  may  be 
considered  either  as  it  radiates  from  lumin- 
ous bodies  directly  to  our  eyes ;  and  thus 


120         Of  the  Five  Senses  of  Mc 


an. 


we  see  these  luminous  bodies  themselves ; 
as  the  Sun,  a  lighted  torch,  &c.  or  as  it 
is  reflected  from  other  bodies  ;  and  thus  we 
see  a  flower,  a  man,  &c.  or  a  picture  re- 
flected from  them  to  our  eyes  by  the  rays  of 
light.^ 

It  is  to  be  observed,  that  the  bodies  which 
respect  the  light  are  of  three  sorts,  1.  Those 
that  emit  the  rays  of  light ;  as  the  sun  and 
fixed  stars  :  2.  Those  that  transmit  the  rays 
of  light ;  as  the  air  :  and,  3.  Those  that 
reflect  them  ;  as  the  moon,  the  earth,  iron, 
Sec.  The  first  we  call  Luminous,  the  se- 
cond Pellucid,  and  the  third  Opaque  bo- 
dies. It  is  also  to  be  observed,  that  the 
rays  of  light  themselves  are  never  seen ; 
but  by  their  means  we  see  the  luminous  bo- 
dies, from  which  they  originally  came  ;  and 
the  opaque  bodies,  from  which  they  are 
reflected  ;  thus,  for  instance,  when  the  moon 
shines,  we  cannot  see  the  rays  which  pass 
from  the  sun  to  the  moon  ;  but,  by  their 
means,  we  see  the  moon,  from  whence  they 
are  reflected. 

If  the  eye  be  placed  directly  in  the  medi- 
um, through  which  the  rays  pass  to  it,  the 
medium  is  not  seen  ;  for  we  never  see  the 
air  through  which  the   rays  come  to  our 


and  of  his  Understanding.  121 

eyes.  But  if  a  pellucid  body,  through  which 
the  rays  are  to  pass,  be  placed  at  a  distance 
from  our  eye,  that  body  will  be  seen,  as  well 
as  those  bodies  from  whence  the  rays  came 
that  pass  through  it  to  our  eyes.  For  in- 
stance,  he  who  looks  through  a  pair  of  spec- 
tacles, not  only  sees  bodies  through  them, 
but  also  sees  the  glass  itself;  because  the 
glass,  being  a  solid  body,  reflects  some  rays 
of  light  from  its  surface  ;  and  being  placed  at 
a  convenient  distance  from  the  eye,  may  be 
seen  by  those  reflected  rays  at  the  same  time 
that  bodies  at  a  greater  distance  are  seen  by 
the  transmitted  rays ;  and  this  is  the  reason, 
perhaps,  why  objects  are  seen  more  dis- 
tinctly through  a  reflecting  than  through  a 
refractmg  telescope. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  opaque  bodies ; 
namely,  those  that  are  not  specular ;  as  the 
moon,  the  earth,  a  man,  a  horse,  &:c.  and 
others  that  are  specular,  or  mirrors,  like 
those  in  reflecting  telescopes,  whose  surfaces 
being  polished,  reflect  the  rays  in  the  same 
order  as  they  came  from  other  bodies,  and 
show  us  their  images ;  and  rays  that  are 
thus  reflected  from  opaque  bodies  always 
bring  with  them  to  the  eye  the  idea  of  co- 
lour, though  this  colour  in  bodies  is  nothing 


122       Of  the  Five  Senses  of  Man, 

more  than  a  disposition  to  reflect  to  the  eye 
one  sort  of  rays  more  copiously,  or  in  great- 
er plenty  than  another ;  for  particular  rays 
impress  upon  the  eye  particular  colours; 
some  are  red,  others  blue,  yellow,  green, 
&c.  Now  it  is  to  be  observed,  that  every, 
body  of  light  which  comes  from  the  Sun, 
seems  to  be  compounded  of  those  various 
sorts  of  rays ;  and  as  some  of  them  are 
more  refrangible  than  others,  that  is  to 
say,  are  more  turned  out  of  their  course  in 
passing  from  one  medium  to  another,  it  ne- 
cessarily follows  that  they  will  be  separated 
after  such  refraction,  and  their  colours  ap- 
pear distinct.  The  most  refrangible  of 
these  are  the  violet,  and  the  least  red :  the 
intermediate  ones,  in  order,  are  indigo,  blue, 
green,  yellow,  and  orange. 

How  do  you  know,  Mr.  Philosopher, 
that  colours  are  separated  in  this  manner  ? 
says   Master  Harry :  I  have  no   notion  of 

these  doctrines  without  demonstration. 

That  you  may  have,  if  you  please,  replied 
the  Philosopher.  Pray,  Master  Lovelace, 
hand  me  that  Prism. 


and  of  his  Understanding,  123 


Now,  Master  Harry,  if  you  will  please 
to  hold  this  Prism  in  the  beams  of  the  Sun, 
you  will  see  the  colours  separated  in  the  man- 
ner I  have  mentioned.  Please  to  look,  Lady 
Caroline ;  the  separation  is  very  pleasing, 
and  you  will  find  what  I  have  said  of  the 
rainbow  in  my  third  Lecture,  confirm.ed  by 
this  experiment. 

All  these  rays  differ  not  only  in  refrangi- 
bility,  but  in  reflexibility  ;  I  mean  the  pro- 
perty some  have  of  being  reflected  more 
easily  than  others ;  and  hence  arise  all  the 
various  colours  of  bodies. 

The  whiteness  of  the  Sun's  light  is  ow- 
ing, it  is  supposed,  to  a  mixture  of  all  the 
original  colours  in  a  due  proportion  ;  and 
whiteness  in  other  bodies  is  a  disposition  to 
reflect  all  the  colours  of  light  nearly  in  the 
same  proportion  as  they  are  mixed  in  the 
original  rays  of  the  Sun  ;  as  blackness,  on 
the  contrary,  is  only  a  disposition  to  absorb 


124        Of  the  Five  Senses  of  Man, 

or  stifle,  without  reflection,  most  of  the  rays 
of  every  sort  that  fall  on  those  bodies  ;  and 
it  is  for  that  reason,  we  may  suppose,  that 
black  clothes  are  warmer  than  those  of  any 
other  colour.  The  inhabitants  of  Naples, 
though  in  so  hot  a  clime,  for  the  most  part 
wear  black. 

Hearing  is  the  next  most  extensive  of  our 
senses,  the  organ  of  which  is  the  ear,  whose 
structure  is  extremely  curious,  as  may  be 
seen  in  the  books  of  Anatomy. 

That  which  the  ear  conveys  to  the  brain 
is  called  Sound,  though  till  it  reaches  and 
aflfects  the  perceptive  part,  it  is  in  reality 
nothing  but  motion  ;  and  this  motion,  which 
produces  in  us  the  perception  of  sound,  is  a 
vibration  of  the  air  occasioned  by  a  very 
short  and  quick  tremulous  motion  of  the 
body  from  whence  it  is  propagated.  That 
sound  is  conveyed  in  this  manner,  may  be 
known  by  w^hat  is  observed  and  felt  in  the 
strings  of  musical  instruments,  and  of  bells, 
which  tremble  or  vibrate  as  long  as  we 
perceive  any  sound  come  from  them ;  and 
from  this  effect  which  they  produce  in  us, 
they  are  called  sounding  bodies. 

Sound  is  propagated  at  a  great  rate  ;  but 
not  near  so  fast  as  light. 1  don't  know 


and  of  his  Understanding.  125 

that,    says   Lady   Caroline. Then   you 

have  forgotten  what  passed  in  our  Lecture 
upon  air,  replied  the  Philosopher ;  and  to 
confirm  by  experiment  what  I  advanced,  I 
must  beg  that  one  of  the  ser^'ants  go  to  a 
distance  into  the  park,  and  discharge  a  gun, 

The  gentlemen  were  averse  to  this  ;  it 

being  an  observation  they  had  made  a  hun- 
dred times  ;  but  to  gratify  the  young  peo- 
ple, Mr.  Setstar  ordered  his  game-keeper 
out ;  and  w^hen  the  piece  was  discharged, 
they  had  the  satisfaction  of  seeing  the  fire 
long  before  they  heard  the  report. 

The  effect  is  the  same,  says  our  Philoso- 
pher, in  thunder  storms  ;  for  we  perceive  the 
flash  of  lightniaig  before  we  hear  the  thun- 
der ;  and  the  more  distant  the  storm  is  from 
us,  the  greater  is  the  space  of  time  between 
the  flash  and  report. 

Smelling  is  another  sense  which  seems 
to  be  excited  in  us  by  external  bodies,  and 
sometimes  by  bodies  at  a  great  distance ; 
but  that  which  immediately  affects  the  nose, 
the  organ  of  smelling,  and  produces  in  us 
the  sensation  of  any  smell,  are  effluvia,  or 
invisible  particles  that  ffy  from  those  bodies 
to  our  olfactory  nerves. -^-How  do  you  prove 

this,  young  gentleman  ?  says  Master  Harry. 
L2 


126         Of  the  Five  Senses  of  Man, 

— Sir,  replied  the  Philosopher,  had  yoi^ 
be^n  here  yesterday,  you  would  not  have 
asked  this  question ;  for,  as  the  wind  was 
north-east,  the  effluvia  from  those  brick- 
kilns were  ready  to  suffocate  us  ;  but  now 
the  wind  is  turned  to  the  south-west,  you 
observe  no  such  thing,  because  those  efflu- 
via  are  driven  a  contrary  way. 

The  power  which  some  bodies  have  of 
emitting  these  effluvia  or  steams,  without 
being  visibly  diminished,  is  to  me  most  ama- 
zing ;  yet  that  it  is  true  we  know  by  abun- 
dant experience.  A  single  grain  of  musk 
will  scent  a  thousand  rooms,  and  send  forth 
these  odoriferous  particles  for  a  great  num* 
ber  of  years  without  being  spent.  Surely 
these  particles  must  be  extremely  small ;  yet 
their  minuteness  is  nothing  when  compared 
with  the  particles  of  light,  which  pervade 
and  find  their  way  through  glass,  or  to 
the  magnetic  effluvia,  which  pass  freely 
through  metallic  bodies  ;  whereas  those  ef- 
fluvia that  produce  the  sensation  of  smelling, 
notwithstanding  their  wonderful  property  of 
scenting  all  places  into  which  they  are 
brought,  and  without  any  sensible  dimi- 
nut  ion,  are  yet  too  gross  to  pass  the  mem- 
branes of  a  bladder  j  and  many  of  them  will 


and  of  his  Understanding,  127 

scarce  find  their  way  through  common  white 
paper. 

There  are  but  few  names  to  express  the 
infinite  number  of  scents  that  we  meet  with. 
I  know  of  none  but  those  of  sweet,  stink- 
ing, rank,  musty,  and  sour ;  for  so  bar- 
ren is  our  language  in  this  respect,  that 
the  rest  are  expressed  either  by  degrees  of 
comparison,  or  from  epithets  borrowed  from 
bodies  that  produce  scent ;  w^hich  must,  in 
many  cases,  be  very  inexpressive ;  for  the 
smell  of  a  rose,  of  a  violet,  and  of  musk, 
though  all  sweet,  are  as  distinct  as  any 
scents  whatever. 

The  next  sense  under  our  consideration 
is  Taste,  the  organs  of  which  are  the  tongue 
and  the  palate,  but  principally  the   tongue. 

Ay,   and   a  pretty   organ    it    is,  says 

Lady  Caroline. — When  used  with  your  dis- 
cretion, replied  the  Philosopher.  But  I 
must  observe  to  you,  and  the  rest  of  the 
good  company,  that  though  bodies  which 
emit  light,  sounds,  and  scents  are  seen, 
heard,  and  smelt  at  a  distance,  yet  no  bo- 
dies can  produce  taste  without  being  imme- 
diately  applied  to  that  organ;  for  though 
the  meat  be  placed  at  your  mouth,   you 


128       Of  the  Five  Senses  of  Man, 

know  not  what  taste  it  will  produce  till  you 
have  touched  it  with  your  tongue  or  palate. 
Though  there  is  an  amazing  variety  of 
tastes,  yet  here,  as  in  scents,  we  have  but 
a  few  general  names  to  express  the  whole ; 
sweet,  sour,  bitter,  harsh,  smooth,  and  rank, 
are  all  that  I  can  recollect ;  and  our  other 
ideas  of  taste  are  generally  conveyed  by 
borrowed   similitudes   and   expressions   as 

those  of  scents. It   is  surprising,  says 

the  Ambassador,  that  in  this  age  of  glut- 
tony, your  language  should  be  so  barren 
as  not  to  afford  you  words  to  express  those 
ideas  which  are  excited  by  exquisite  fla- 
vours.  Sir,  says  Mr,  Setstar,  this  may 

be  easily  accounted  for.  I  must  inform  you 
that  we  are  indebted  for  our  most  expres- 
sive terms  to  the  poets,  who  were  never 
much  acquainted  with  good  eating ;  and  are 

less  so  since  literature  has  lost  its  zest. 

Very  true,  says  Master  Harry,  their  dishes, 
poor  creatures,  have  lately  been  of  the  men- 
tal kind  ;  but  had  you  a  few  rich  poets  that 
could  afford  to  live  like  people  of  taste,  in- 
stead of  your  sweets  and  sours,  and  such 
old-fashioned  terms,  you  would  have  the 
calapash  and  calapee  flavour,  the  live  lobster 
flavour,  the  whipt  pig  flavour,  and  a  list  of 


and  of  his  Understandhtg.  129 

©thers  as  long  as  my  arm. — Fie,  Harry,  says 
Mrs.   Setstar,  no  more  of  that,  I  beg ;  you 
know  Lady  Caroline  can't  bear  the  name  of 
barbarity. — Nor  I,   says  the   Ambassador; 
but  pray  what  barbarity  is  there   in  this  ? — 
Oh  !  none  at  all,  replied  Harry,  I  only  mean 
to  insintiate  that  some  of  our  great  people 
are  not  content  with  having  food  brought 
from  the  East  and  West- Indies,  and  tvery 
other  part  of  the  World,    to  gratify  their 
palates,    but  they  must  roast  lobsters  alive, 
and  whip  young  pigs  to  death  to  make  them 
tender. — Good  God  !  says  the  Ambassador, 
are  there  people  in  Christendom  capable  of 
such  acts  of  inhumanity  ?  A  man  that  would 
do  that   would  m.urder  me,  if  the  law   did 
not  stand  between  us  ;  and  the  law  is  but  a 
poor   screen  where  humanity  is  lost;    and 
conscience  lulled  to  sleep.     I'll  apply  to  the 
King  my  master  for  my  dismission   and  no 
longer  live  with  a  people  who  have  adopted 
such  diabolical   customs. The  Ambas- 
sador v/as  so  much  in  a  passion,  that  it  was 
with  difficulty   Mr.    Setstar   pacified   him ; 
and  poor  Lady   Caroline,  whose  kind  soul 
sympathises  with  every  creature  in  distress, 
was  in  tears  at  the  bare  rehearsal  of  those 
acts  of  cruelty.     Here  Harry  apologized  to 


ISO       Of  the  Five  Senses  of  Man, 

the  company  for  having  interrupted  the 
Lecturer  :  perhaps  he  never  before  shewed 
so  much  good  sense  ;  for  he  certainly  de- 
served severe  reprehension  for  introducing 
any  subject  which  disturbed  that  harmony 
and  attention  from  the  hearers  which  had  hi- 
therto been  preserved. 

When  silence  was  restored,  our  Philo- 
sopher arose,  and  thus  pursued  his  Lec- 
ture :— 

I  have  already  taken  notice  of  four  of  our 
senses,  and  am  now  come  to  the  fifth  and 
last,  I  mean  that  of  the  Touch  ;  which  is  a 
sense  spread  over  the  whole  body,  though 
it  is  more  particularly  the  business  of  the 
hands  and  fingers  ;  for  by  them  the  tangible 
qualities  of  bodies  are  known,  since  we  dis- 
cover by  the  touch  of  the  fingers,  and  some- 
times indeed  by  the  touch  of  other  parts 
of  the  body,  whether  things  are  hard,  soft, 
rough,  smooth,  wet,  dry,  &:c.  But  the  qua- 
lities which  most  affect  this  sense  are  heat 
and  cold,  and  which,  indeed,  are  the  great 
engines  of  Nature  ;  for  by  a  due  tempera- 
ment of  those  two  opposite  qualities,  most 
of  her  productions  are  formed. 

What  we  call  heat  is  occasioned  by  the 
agitation  of  the  insensible  parts  of  the  body 


f/ha/li^c^  "^-c^teo^^ 


CJ 


and  of  his  Understanding.  131 

that  produce  in  us  that  sensation  ;  and  when 
the  parts  of  a  body  are  violently  agitated,  we 
say,  and  indeed  we  feel,  that  body  to  be  hot; 
so  that  that  which  to  our  sensation  is  heat, 

in  the  object  is  nothing  but  motion. 

Hey-day,  says  Lady  Caroline,  what  sort  of 

philosophy  is  this  ? Why,  Madam,  says 

Master  Harry,  this  is  a  position  which  has 
been  laid  down  by  these  airy  gentlemen  for 
a  long  time,  but  which  never  has  been  prov- 
ed by  experiment. Take  care,  says  Mr. 

Setstar,  or  you'll  forfeit  all  pretensions  to 
philosophy. — The  forfeiture  is  made  already, 
says  the  philosopher  ;  Harry  has  been  bold 
enough  to  deny  that  which  experience  every 
day  confirms  for  truth.  If  what  we  call 
heat  is  not  motion,  or  occasioned  by  the  mo- 
tion of  bodies,  how  came  Thompson's  mill 
to  take  fire  the  other  day,  when  it  was  run- 
ning round  without  a  proper  supply  of  corn  ? 
And  how  came  your  father's  post- chariot  to 
fire  while  running  down  Break-neck-hill, 
Master  Harry  ?  Consider,  there  was  nobody 
with  a  torch  under  the  axle-tree  ;  but  this  is 
a  part  of  philosophy  known  even  to  the  poor 
American  Indians,  who,  when  hunting  at  a 
great  distance  from  home,  and  wanting  fire 
to  dress  their  meat,  take  a  bow  and  a  string, 


132        Of  the  Five  Senses  of  Man, 

and  rub   two  pieces   of  wood  together  till 

they  produce  flame. But  you  may  see 

that  heat  is  occasioned  by  the  motion  of  bo- 
dies,  by  only  rubbing  this  piece  of  smooth 
brass  on  the  table — ^stay,  I'll  rub  it :  it  must 
be  done  briskly.  There,  now,  you'll  feel  it 
hot ;  but  cease  this  motion  for  a  time,  and 
the  brass  will  become  cold  again ;  whence 
we  may  infer,  that  as  heat  is  nothing  but  the 
insensible  particles  of  bodies  put  into  mo- 
tion, so  cold,  on  the  contrary,  is  occasion- 
ed by  the  cessation  of  the  motion  of  those 
particles,  or  their  being  placed  in  a  state  of 
rest.* 

But  bodies  appear  hot  or  cold  in  propor- 
tion to  the  temperament  of  that  part  of  the 
human  body  to  which  they  are  applied ;  so 
that  what  seems  hot  to  one,  may  not  seem  so 
to  another.  This  is  so  true,  that  the  same 
body,  felt  by  the  two  hands  of  the  same  man, 
may  at  the  same  instant  of  time  appear  warm 
to  one  hand  and  cold  to  the  other,  if  with  the 
one  hand  he  has  been  rubbing  any  thing, 

*  The  matter  of  heat,  or,  as  it  is  termed,  caloric,  is,  in 
modem  chemistry,  supposed  to  be  an  elementary  princi- 
ple, in  a  fluid  forni,  exceedingly  subtile  and  elastic,  which 
penetrates  all  b'^c;  cs ;  and  the  sensation  of  heat  or  cold  in 
an  animal  l>od}  is  occasioned  by  this  caloric  passing  into  or 
out  of  the  body — Ed. 


and  of  his  Understanding,,  13.3 

while  the  other  was  kept  in  a  state  of  rest ; 
and  for  no  other  reason  but  because  the  mo- 
tion of  the  insensible  particles  of  that  hand 
with  which  he  has  been  rubbing,  will  be 
more  brisk  than  the  particles  of  the  other 
which  was  at  rest. 

I  have  mentioned  those  objects  which  are 
peculiar  to  each  of  our  senses  ;  as  light  and 
colour  to  the  sight ;  sound  to  the  hearing ; 
odours  to  the  smell,  &c.  but  there  are  two 
others  common  to  all  the  senses,  w^hich  de- 
serve our  notice,  and  these  are  Pleasure  and 
Pain,  w^hich  the  senses  may  receive  by  their 
Own  peculiar  objects :  for  we  know  that  a 
proper  portion  of  light  is  pleasing,  but  that 
too  much  offends  the  eye  ;  some  sounds  de- 
light, while  others  are  disagreeable  and  grate 
the  ear;  so  heat,  in  a  moderate  degreee,  is 
very  pleasant,  yet  that  heat  may  be  so  in- 
creased as  to  give  the  most  intolerable  pain. 
But  these  things  are  too  well  known  to  be 
longer  insisted  on. 

Now,  from  the  ideas  or  conceptions  form- 
ed in  the  mind  by  means  of  our  senses,  and 
the  operations  of  the  mind  itself,  are  laid 
the  foundation  of  the  human  understanding, 
the  lowest  degree  of  which  is  perception  : 

and   to  conceive  a  right  notion  of  this,  we 
M 


134         Of  the  Five  Senses  of  Man  ^ 

must  distinguish  the  first  objects  of  it,  which 
are  simple  ideas,  such  as  are  represented  by 
the  words  Red,  Bhie,  Bitter,  Sweet,  Sec. 
from  the  other  objects  of  our  senses ;  to 
which  we  may  add  the  internal  operations  of 
our  own  minds,  or  the  objects  of  reflection  ; 
such  as  are  thinking,  willing.  Sec.  for  all  our 
ideas  are  first  obtained  by  sensation  and  re- 
flection. The  mind,  having  gained  a  variety 
of  simple  ideas,  by  putting  them  together, 
forms  what  are  called  compounded  or  com- 
plex ideas  ;  as  those  signified  by  the  words, 
Man,   Horse,  Marygold,   Windmill,  &c. 

The  next  operation  of  the  mind  (or  of  the 
understanding)  in  its  progress  to  knowledge, 
is  that  of  abstracting  its  ideas ;  for  by  ab- 
straction they  are  made  general ;  and  a  ge- 
neral idea  is  to  be  considered  as  separated 
from  time  and  place,  and  lodged  in  the  mind 
to  represent  any  particular  thing  that  is  con- 
formable to  it. 

Knowledge,  which  is  the  highest  degree 
of  the  speculative  faculties  consists  in  the 
perception  of  the  truth  of  affirmative  or  ne- 
gative propositions ;  and  this  perception  is 
either  immediate  or  mediate.  When,  by 
comparing  two  ideas  together  in  the  mind, 
we  peixeive  their  agreement  or  disagree- 


and  of  his  Understandhig,  135 

ment,  as  that  black  is  not  white ;  that  the 
whole  is  bigger  than  a  part;  and  that  two  and 
two  are  equal  to  four,  &c.  it  is  called  Immedi- 
ate Perception,  or  Intuitive  Knowledge ;  and 
as  the  truth  of  these  and  the  like  propositi- 
ons is  so  evident  as  to  be  known  by  a  simple 
intuition  of  the  ideas  themselves,  they  are 
also  called   Self-evident  Propositions. 

Mediate  perception  is  when  the  agree- 
ment or  disagreement  of  the  two  ideas  is 
made  known  by  the  intervention  of  some 
other  ideas.  Thus  :  If  it  be  affirmed  that 
Tom  Wilson's  bay  horse  is  as  high  as  my 
father's,  the  agreement  or  disagreement 
may   be  seen   by  applying  the  measure    to 

both : And  this  is  called  Demonstration, 

Or  Rational  Knowledge.  The  dimensions 
of  any  two  bodies  which  cannot  be  brought 
together  may  be  thus  known,  by  the  same 
measure  being  applied  to  them  both. 

But  the  understanding  is  not  confined  to 
certain  truth  ;  it  also  judges  of  probability, 
which  consists  in  the  likely  agreement  or 
disagreement  of  ideas  ;  and  assenting  to  any 
proposition  as  probable  is  called  Opinion  or 
Belief. — We  have  now  finished  this  course 
of  Lectures. — I  hope  not,  says  Lady  Caro^ 

line,  with  some  emotion. Why,  returned 

the  Philosoper,  we  have  taken  acursory  view 
of  natural  bodies,  and  their  causes  and  ef- 


136        Of  the  Five  Senses  of  Man, 

fects  ;  which  I  have  endeavoured  to  explain 
in  sucli  a  manner  as  to  be  intelligible  at 
least,  if  not  entertaining;  and  pray,  what 

inore  did  you  expect  ? Sir,  replied  the 

Lady,  I  am  greatly  pleased  with  the  account 
you  have  given  us ;  and  I  thank  you  for  the 
pains  you  have  taken  to  answer  the  many 
questions  I  have  troubled  you  with.  What 
I  had  further  to  hope,  was  that  you  would 
liave  given  us,  when  you  were  on  the  subject  of 
Animals,  some  strictures  on  the  cruelty  with 
which  they  are  too  often  treated  ;  and  have 
thrown  in  reflections  and  observations  tend- 
ing to  enforce  on  mankind  a  different  con- 
duct. This  I  wished  for,  and  should  have 
been  glad  to  have  Mr.  Thomas  and  his  La- 
dy here  at  the  same  time,  who  are  both  ex- 
tremely fond  of  their  little  domestic  crea- 
tures ;  and  I  admire  them  for  their  tender- 
ness and  compassion. — These  feelings  and 
sentiments  of  the  human  heart.  Madam, 
says  the  Philosopher,  add  much  to  the  digni- 
ty of  our  nature  ;  and  I  am  greatly  delighted 
with  such  behaviour ;  but  1  am  afraid,  La- 
dy Caroline,  that  we  often  mistake  charac- 
ters of  this  kind,  and  take  that  for  humanity 
and  tenderness  which  is  only  the  effect  of 
fancy  or  self-love.  That  Mr.  Thomas  has 
compassion,  I  grant  you  ;  but  I   am  afraid 


and  qf  his  Uiider standing,  137 

it  is  only  for  himself.  He  loves  his  dogs 
and  horses,  because  his  dogs  and  horses 
give  him  pleasure,  but  to  other  creatures 
that  afford  him  none,  he  is  absolutely  insen- 
sible. I  have  seen  him,  even  at  Christmas, 
feed  his  pretty  pups,  as  he  calls  them,  with 
delicacies ;  but  rave  at  the  same  time  in  a 
merciless  manner,  at  poor  children  who 
were  shivering  at  his  gate,  and  send  them 
away  empty-handed.  Our  neighbour,  Mr. 
Williams,  is  also  of  the  same  disposition : 
he  will  not  sell  a  horse  that  is  declining,  for 
fear  he  should  fall  into  the  hands  of  a  mas- 
ter who  might  treat  him  with  cruelty  ;  but 
he  is  largely  concerned  in  the  slave-trade 
(which  I  think  is  carried  on  by  none  but  us 
good  christains,  to  the  dishonour  of  our  ce- 
lestial Master)  and  makes  no  difficulty  of 
separating  the  husband  from  the  wife,  the 
parents  fi'om  the  children,  and  all  of  them 
from  their  native  country,  to  be  sold  in  a 
foreign  market,  like  so  many  horses,  and 
often  to  the  most  merciless  of  the  human 
race.  Is  this  humanity.  Madam?  Is  this 
morality  ?  But  above  all,  is  this  Christianity  ? 
And  are  these  the  blessed  effects  of  the  li- 
berty we  boast  of  ?  But  do  not  let  us  be 
misled  by  specious  pretences.  We  cannot 
judge  of  any  man,  Madam,  by  one  single 


138         Of  the  Five  Senses  of  Man, 

action,  but  by  the  tenor  and  result  of  all  his 
actions  ;  and  this  requires  deep  penetration, 
and  an  intimate  knowledge  of  human  life. 

Benevolence,  Lady  Caroline,  should  be 
universal,  for  it  is  an  emanation  of  the  Su* 
preme  Being,  whose  mercy  and  goodness 
are  extended  to  all  his  creatures,  as  ours 
also  should  be  ;  for  they  are  fellow-tenants 
with  us  of  the  globe  we  inhabit. 

I  have  often  thought  that  most  of  the  mis- 
chiefs which  embarrass  society,  and  render 
one  contemptible  to  another,  are  owing  to 
inordinate  ambition,  or  extreme  love  of 
power  and  wealth  ;  for  all  the  gold  a  man  pos- 
sesses,  beyond  that  portion  which  is  requi- 
site for  himself  and  family,  only  serves  to 
inflame  his  ambition ;  as  all  the  wine  we 
drink,  more  than  is  necessary  to  recruit  the 
drooping  spirits,  answers  no  other  purpose 
but  to  intoxicate  the  mind. 

I  have  seen  a  book  in  my  papa's  library, 
which  gives  some  account  of  one  Lycurgus, 
an  old  Grecian  lawgiver ;  with  whose  cha- 
racter you  ought  to  be  acquainted.  This 
man  was  of  opinion,  that  religion,  virtue, 
and  good  manners,  were  the  only  natural 
cements,  and  preservation  of  liberty,  peace, 
and  friendship  ;  which  he  found  had  been 
destroyed  and  extirpated  by  means  of  wealth 


and  of  his  Understanding.  139 

and  self-interest :  he  therefore  prohibited  the 
use  of  gold  and  silver,  and  all  kinds  of  lux- 
ury in  the  state,  and  established  such  a  plan 
for  the  education  of  youth  of  ^yery  deno- 
mhiation,  as  was  most  likely  to  confirm  and 
liabituate  them  in  the  practice  of  religion  and 
virtue,  and  secure  to  the  Spartans  and  their 
posterity  the  blessings  of  liberty  and  peace. 
The   event  proved  that  his  institutions 
were  founded  on  sound  policy,  and  a  per- 
fect knowledge  of  human  nature ;  for  in  the 
space  of  five  hundred  years,  that  is  to  say, 
from  the  time  of  Lycurgus  to  the  introduc- 
tion of  wealth   into  the  state  of  Lysander 
in  the  reign  of  the  first  Agis,  there  was  no 
mutiny    among   the    people;    every    man 
submitted  cheerfully    to  the  laws  of  Ly- 
curgus,  and  all  were  so  united  and  power' 
ful  m  consequence  of  their  virtue,  sobriety 
and  the  martial  discipline  he  had  established 
(which  was  that  of  a  national  militia)  that 
bparta,  a  very  small  and  inconsiderable  state 
not  only  gave  laws  to  the  rest  of  Greece  but 
made  even  the  Persian  monarchs  tremble, 
though  masters  of  the  richest  and  most  ex 
tensive  empire  in  the  world.     But  ivhen  this 
great  and  virtuous  people   of   Sparta   had 
conquered   Athens,  and  from  thence  intro! 
duced  wealth  and  luxury  into  their  ow. 


liO    Of  the  Five  Senses  of  Man,  Wc. 

country,  they  lost  their  virtue,  dwindled  to 
nothing,  and  were  themselves  enslaved. 
Nor  is  this  a  matter  of  wonder  ;  for  where 
religion  and  virtue  are  set  at  a  distance,  and 
wealth  leads  the  waj  to  posts  of  honour -and 
trust,  some  people  will  stick  at  nothing  to 
obtain  gold  ;  but  were  dignities  of  this  kind 
conferred  on  the  most  deserving,  and  none 
but  men  of  virtue  and  superior  abilities  pro- 
moted to  places  of  trust  and  power,  there 
would  be  no  frauds  in  the  state,  or  violence 
Umong  the  people  ;  and  we  might  then  hope 
to  enjoy  the  felicities  of  the  Golden   Age. 

Man  in  that  age  no  rule  but  reason   knew, 
And  with  a  native  bent  did  good  pursue  ; 
Unaw'd  by  punishment,   and  void  of  fear. 
His  words  were  simple,  and  his  soul  sincere. 
By  no  forc'd  laws  his  passions  were  confin'd, 
.  For  Conscience  kept  his  heart,  and  calm'd  his  mind ; 
Peace  o'er  the  world  her  blessed  sway  maintained) 
And  e'en  in  desarts  smiling  Plenty  reign'd. 

FINIS. 


DIRECTIONS  TO  THE  BINDER. 

Sronthp'icce  '^  f^^e  tic  Titl* 

Lecture  on  Matter  and  Motion  p^g^         6 

Solar  System  5* 

Mount   f^esuvius  *^^ 

tafriage  f  red  by  Miction  '3^ 


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